Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598350
J. Möller, O. Köller
Abstract Attribution research is usually based on reactive attributions demanded by the instructions themselves. However, examining spontaneous verbal reports (B. Weiner, 1985) avoids reduction to causal cognitions. In the present study, the authors used a multithematic approach focusing on causal, evaluative, and finalistic cognitions (see A. Abele, 1985; P. T. Wong & B. Weiner, 1981). In Experiment 1, spontaneous verbalizations by university students (N = 35) immediately after they had received their exam results in a statistics course were obtained. The students who performed better than they had expected tended to produce dominantly evaluative thoughts. The students who received worse results than they had expected showed an increase in causal reasoning. In Experiment 2, junior high school students (N = 96) who were uncertain of their expected grades in a math exam were more likely to spontaneously write down causal attributions following failure and to verbalize evaluative cognitions after success, w...
归因研究通常是基于指令本身所要求的反应性归因。然而，检查自发口头报告(B. Weiner, 1985)避免了对因果认知的还原。在本研究中，作者使用了多主题方法，重点关注因果认知、评估认知和最终认知(见a . Abele, 1985;P. T. Wong & B. Weiner, 1981)。在实验1中，获得了35名大学生(N = 35)在收到统计学课程考试成绩后的自发语言表达。表现好于预期的学生倾向于产生主要的评价性想法。结果比预期差的学生表现出因果推理能力的提高。在实验2中，初中生(N = 96)在数学考试成绩不确定的情况下，失败后更倾向于自发地写下因果归因，成功后更倾向于用语言表达评估性认知。
{"title":"Spontaneous Cognitions Following Academic Test Results","authors":"J. Möller, O. Köller","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598350","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598350","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Attribution research is usually based on reactive attributions demanded by the instructions themselves. However, examining spontaneous verbal reports (B. Weiner, 1985) avoids reduction to causal cognitions. In the present study, the authors used a multithematic approach focusing on causal, evaluative, and finalistic cognitions (see A. Abele, 1985; P. T. Wong & B. Weiner, 1981). In Experiment 1, spontaneous verbalizations by university students (N = 35) immediately after they had received their exam results in a statistics course were obtained. The students who performed better than they had expected tended to produce dominantly evaluative thoughts. The students who received worse results than they had expected showed an increase in causal reasoning. In Experiment 2, junior high school students (N = 96) who were uncertain of their expected grades in a math exam were more likely to spontaneously write down causal attributions following failure and to verbalize evaluative cognitions after success, w...","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"150-164"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598350","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958479","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598489
Paul L. MacDonald
Abstract The author used Monte Carlo methods to assess the relative merits of using the Student t test and the Wilcoxon rank sum test under 4 population distributions and 6 sample-size pairings. The results of the simulation indicated that when the null hypothesis was true, the Student t test and the Wilcoxon rank sum test maintained Type I errors at the nominal level for normally distributed populations, but only the Wilcoxon rank sum test maintained the Type I error rate at a nominal level for nonnormal distributions. When the populations were not normally distributed and the null hypothesis was false, the Wilcoxon rank sum test demonstrated (a) a consistent advantage in statistical power, (b) fewer Type III errors, and (c) proportionally fewer rejections that were in the wrong direction. When sample sizes were unequal, those advantages became even more pronounced.
{"title":"Power, Type I, and Type III Error Rates of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Tests","authors":"Paul L. MacDonald","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598489","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598489","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The author used Monte Carlo methods to assess the relative merits of using the Student t test and the Wilcoxon rank sum test under 4 population distributions and 6 sample-size pairings. The results of the simulation indicated that when the null hypothesis was true, the Student t test and the Wilcoxon rank sum test maintained Type I errors at the nominal level for normally distributed populations, but only the Wilcoxon rank sum test maintained the Type I error rate at a nominal level for nonnormal distributions. When the populations were not normally distributed and the null hypothesis was false, the Wilcoxon rank sum test demonstrated (a) a consistent advantage in statistical power, (b) fewer Type III errors, and (c) proportionally fewer rejections that were in the wrong direction. When sample sizes were unequal, those advantages became even more pronounced.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"367-379"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598489","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598354
Ju Hyun Lee
Abstract In the present study, information processing of test anxiety is explained within the framework of the ACT* model. The author used the speed-accuracy tradeoff method to investigate the effect of test anxiety on each subsystem of working memory. The sample was made up of 119 college students enrolled in an educational psychology course. Test anxiety affected performance on the verbal-analogies task but not on the rhyming-judgment and visual-spatial tasks. The participants' subvocalization of the rhyming words may have drawn attention to the task itself and preempted the effect of test anxiety on task performance. Also, the activation processes for the visual-spatial tasks may have occurred in a different dimension or separate from the verbal processes of test anxiety.
{"title":"Test anxiety and working memory.","authors":"Ju Hyun Lee","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598354","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598354","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract In the present study, information processing of test anxiety is explained within the framework of the ACT* model. The author used the speed-accuracy tradeoff method to investigate the effect of test anxiety on each subsystem of working memory. The sample was made up of 119 college students enrolled in an educational psychology course. Test anxiety affected performance on the verbal-analogies task but not on the rhyming-judgment and visual-spatial tasks. The participants' subvocalization of the rhyming words may have drawn attention to the task itself and preempted the effect of test anxiety on task performance. Also, the activation processes for the visual-spatial tasks may have occurred in a different dimension or separate from the verbal processes of test anxiety.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"218-240"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598354","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958110","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598356
Xitao Fan, Lin Wang
Abstract The performances of predictive discriminant analysis (PDA) and logistic regression (LR) for the 2-group classification problem were compared. The authors used a fully crossed 3-factor experimental design (sample size, group proportions, and equal or unequal covariance matrices) and 2 data patterns. When the 2 groups had equal covariance matrices, PDA and LR performed comparably for the conditions of both equal and unequal group proportions. When the 2 groups had unequal covariance matrices (4:1, as implemented in this study) and very different group proportions, PDA and LR differed somewhat with regard to the classification error rates of the 2 groups, but the classification error rates of the 2 methods for the total sample remained comparable. Sample size played a relatively minor role in the classification accuracy of the 2 methods, except when LR was used under relatively small sample-size conditions.
{"title":"Comparing Linear Discriminant Function with Logistic Regression for the Two-Group Classification Problem.","authors":"Xitao Fan, Lin Wang","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598356","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598356","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The performances of predictive discriminant analysis (PDA) and logistic regression (LR) for the 2-group classification problem were compared. The authors used a fully crossed 3-factor experimental design (sample size, group proportions, and equal or unequal covariance matrices) and 2 data patterns. When the 2 groups had equal covariance matrices, PDA and LR performed comparably for the conditions of both equal and unequal group proportions. When the 2 groups had unequal covariance matrices (4:1, as implemented in this study) and very different group proportions, PDA and LR differed somewhat with regard to the classification error rates of the 2 groups, but the classification error rates of the 2 methods for the total sample remained comparable. Sample size played a relatively minor role in the classification accuracy of the 2 methods, except when LR was used under relatively small sample-size conditions.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"265-286"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598356","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958320","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598494
R. Perrine
Abstract The author explored college students' (N = 151) perceptions of a professor's note—“Please see me”—as a function of the students' attachment style and perceived support. Data collected were the students' reactions to the note, attachment style, and perceived social support. Compared with the securely attached students, the insecurely attached students had more negative emotional reactions to the note and were less likely to believe that the professor had positive reasons for wanting to see them. Fearful students, male students, and students with lower GPAs were more likely to ignore the note and expended less effort to see the professor. Perceived availability of support was related to attachment style, and satisfaction with support was related to some beliefs about the professor's intentions.
{"title":"Please See Me: Students' Reactions to Professor's Request as a Function of Attachment and Perceived Support","authors":"R. Perrine","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598494","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598494","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The author explored college students' (N = 151) perceptions of a professor's note—“Please see me”—as a function of the students' attachment style and perceived support. Data collected were the students' reactions to the note, attachment style, and perceived social support. Compared with the securely attached students, the insecurely attached students had more negative emotional reactions to the note and were less likely to believe that the professor had positive reasons for wanting to see them. Fearful students, male students, and students with lower GPAs were more likely to ignore the note and expended less effort to see the professor. Perceived availability of support was related to attachment style, and satisfaction with support was related to some beliefs about the professor's intentions.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"68 1","pages":"60-72"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598494","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958821","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598485
Mei-Yan Lu, J. M. Webb, D. Krus, Laura S. Fox
Abstract The effects of applying an order-analytical, multidimensional scaling method for determining hierarchies among a list of Chinese and Japanese kanji characters and mnemonics were explored. The authors used those hierarchies to design a computer-assisted, instructional program for learning the characters. The participants were presented a series of kanji characters in a hierarchical or random order, with and without mnemonics. Recall and recognition tests were administered immediately after the presentation and 48 hr later. Characters that were arranged in a hierarchical sequence or those presented with mnemonics were better learned and remembered than those that were presented in a random order or without mnemonics. The interaction of sequence and mnemonics, however, did not yield significant effects for learning. The results suggest that techniques such as order analysis that scale and organize variables according to their variance contribution and dominance can be useful for designing effective ...
{"title":"Using Order Analytic Instructional Hierarchies of Mnemonics to Facilitate Learning Chinese and Japanese Kanji Characters","authors":"Mei-Yan Lu, J. M. Webb, D. Krus, Laura S. Fox","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598485","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598485","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The effects of applying an order-analytical, multidimensional scaling method for determining hierarchies among a list of Chinese and Japanese kanji characters and mnemonics were explored. The authors used those hierarchies to design a computer-assisted, instructional program for learning the characters. The participants were presented a series of kanji characters in a hierarchical or random order, with and without mnemonics. Recall and recognition tests were administered immediately after the presentation and 48 hr later. Characters that were arranged in a hierarchical sequence or those presented with mnemonics were better learned and remembered than those that were presented in a random order or without mnemonics. The interaction of sequence and mnemonics, however, did not yield significant effects for learning. The results suggest that techniques such as order analysis that scale and organize variables according to their variance contribution and dominance can be useful for designing effective ...","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"293-311"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598485","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958332","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598486
M. Bong
Abstract The generality of academic self-efficacy judgments of groups of students with different personal characteristics was compared, with a sample drawn from a previous study (M. Bong, 1997). Six 1st-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models of different generality were fitted separately to each group. When those models demonstrated an acceptable fit, 2nd-order CFA models were tested. The boys demonstrated more comparable strengths of self-efficacy across academic domains than the girls, who more clearly distinguished between their verbal and math self-efficacy. The Hispanic students made a clearer distinction between Spanish self-efficacy and self-efficacy in other verbal subjects than did the non-Hispanic students. Across verbal and math domains, the students who were in advanced placement classes demonstrated more conservative generality of their self-efficacy judgments than those in regular classes. It appears that students make more context-specific judgments of their academic self-efficacy ...
{"title":"Personal Factors Affecting the Generality of Academic Self-Efficacy Judgments: Gender, Ethnicity, and Relative Expertise","authors":"M. Bong","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598486","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598486","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The generality of academic self-efficacy judgments of groups of students with different personal characteristics was compared, with a sample drawn from a previous study (M. Bong, 1997). Six 1st-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models of different generality were fitted separately to each group. When those models demonstrated an acceptable fit, 2nd-order CFA models were tested. The boys demonstrated more comparable strengths of self-efficacy across academic domains than the girls, who more clearly distinguished between their verbal and math self-efficacy. The Hispanic students made a clearer distinction between Spanish self-efficacy and self-efficacy in other verbal subjects than did the non-Hispanic students. Across verbal and math domains, the students who were in advanced placement classes demonstrated more conservative generality of their self-efficacy judgments than those in regular classes. It appears that students make more context-specific judgments of their academic self-efficacy ...","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"315-331"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598486","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598355
W. Luh
Abstract The Alexander-Govern test was extended to 2-way fixed-effects analysis of variance models. To deal with the impact of violating normality assumptions, variance homogeneity assumptions, or both, the author applied the trimmed mean method to the approximate tests, that is, the Alexander-Govern, Welch, and James 2nd-order tests. The empirical Type I error rates and the statistical power of the original Alexander-Govern, Welch, and James 2nd-order tests and their corresponding trimmed mean methods were investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. The simulation results showed that all 3 trimmed mean methods can control the empirical Type I error on the nominal level when the degree of nonnormality and heterogeneity is extreme. On the other hand, the untrimmed mean methods may be liberal for skewed cases and less powerful than the trimmed mean methods for heavy-tailed cases. The trimmed mean method on the approximate tests was robust with respect to estimators as well as statistics. A numerical example is ...
{"title":"Developing Trimmed Mean Test Statistics for Two-Way Fixed-Effects ANOVA Models Under Variance Heterogeneity and Nonnormality","authors":"W. Luh","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598355","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598355","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract The Alexander-Govern test was extended to 2-way fixed-effects analysis of variance models. To deal with the impact of violating normality assumptions, variance homogeneity assumptions, or both, the author applied the trimmed mean method to the approximate tests, that is, the Alexander-Govern, Welch, and James 2nd-order tests. The empirical Type I error rates and the statistical power of the original Alexander-Govern, Welch, and James 2nd-order tests and their corresponding trimmed mean methods were investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. The simulation results showed that all 3 trimmed mean methods can control the empirical Type I error on the nominal level when the degree of nonnormality and heterogeneity is extreme. On the other hand, the untrimmed mean methods may be liberal for skewed cases and less powerful than the trimmed mean methods for heavy-tailed cases. The trimmed mean method on the approximate tests was robust with respect to estimators as well as statistics. A numerical example is ...","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"243-264"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598355","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598496
Jianjun Wang
Abstract Delimitations of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) were examined in terms of fixed and random effects in multilevel data analyses. The author used examples at the local and national levels to illustrate proper applications of HLM and dummy variable regression. Cautions are raised regarding circumstances under which hierarchical data do not need HLM.
{"title":"Reasons for Hierarchical Linear Modeling: A Reminder","authors":"Jianjun Wang","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598496","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598496","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Delimitations of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) were examined in terms of fixed and random effects in multilevel data analyses. The author used examples at the local and national levels to illustrate proper applications of HLM and dummy variable regression. Cautions are raised regarding circumstances under which hierarchical data do not need HLM.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"68 1","pages":"89-93"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598496","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958614","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1999-01-01DOI: 10.1080/00220979909598348
Anita L. Zeidler, J. Surber
Abstract In the current study, a research approach for examining how visitors “read” museum exhibits is offered. The authors adapted methods that have been applied to the study of the importance structure of text. College students viewed a museum exhibit and rated the informational importance of the exhibit components. The results were similar to those found in studies with text. There was agreement among the participants on the relative importance of the base units of the exhibit and on identifying and ranking subtopic groups of units, but there was much less agreement on overall exhibit focus. Implications of the findings for school children's learning in museums are discussed.
{"title":"Understanding Topic, Structure, and Importance of Information in a Visual and Verbal Display.","authors":"Anita L. Zeidler, J. Surber","doi":"10.1080/00220979909598348","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598348","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract In the current study, a research approach for examining how visitors “read” museum exhibits is offered. The authors adapted methods that have been applied to the study of the importance structure of text. College students viewed a museum exhibit and rated the informational importance of the exhibit components. The results were similar to those found in studies with text. There was agreement among the participants on the relative importance of the base units of the exhibit and on identifying and ranking subtopic groups of units, but there was much less agreement on overall exhibit focus. Implications of the findings for school children's learning in museums are discussed.","PeriodicalId":47911,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Experimental Education","volume":"67 1","pages":"114-132"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"1999-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/00220979909598348","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"58958379","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：