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On a simulation-based chatter prediction system by integrating relative entropy and dynamic cutting force 通过整合相对熵和动态切削力,建立基于模拟的颤振预测系统
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-04-01 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13270-y

Abstract

This paper aims to develop a simulation-based chatter prediction system using relative entropy—Kullback-Leibler divergence (KLD), and the NC program can be modified to become non-chatter. Chatter is one of the major concerns when machining mechanical components on a CNC machine. In general, the majority of the previous research methods achieved non-chatter stable machining by assigning the appropriate machining parameters: (1) spindle speed, (2) feed rate, and (3) depth of cut based on the generated SLD (stability lobe diagram). Non-chatter stable machining can also be accomplished by manually adjusting the spindle override percentage on the operation panel or the values in the CNC controller via networking once chatter is detected during the machining processes. The creation of SLD must consider two essential parameters: cutting force coefficients (CFCs) and frequency response function (FRF). The CFCs can be obtained from cutting experiment data related to a paired tool and workpiece, and the FRF can be calculated from the tapping test experiment. Then, the CFCs and FRF are stored in the database of the developed system. The simulation-based chatter prediction calculates the KLD value based on the relativity of the dynamic cutting force and the static cutting forces so as to predict whether there is chatter in the NC program or not. The NC program can be adjusted to become non-chatter if there is chatter predicted. The proposed method has been successfully verified through on-site machining, showing very promising achievement.

摘要 本文旨在利用相对熵-库尔巴克-莱伯勒发散(KLD)开发一种基于仿真的颤振预测系统,并可修改数控程序使其不发生颤振。在数控机床上加工机械部件时,颤振是主要问题之一。一般来说,以往的大多数研究方法都是根据生成的 SLD(稳定叶图)分配适当的加工参数:(1) 主轴转速、(2) 进给速度和 (3) 切削深度,从而实现无颤振稳定加工。一旦在加工过程中检测到颤振,也可通过手动调整操作面板上的主轴超控百分比或通过联网调整 CNC 控制器中的值来实现无颤振稳定加工。创建 SLD 必须考虑两个基本参数:切削力系数 (CFC) 和频率响应函数 (FRF)。切削力系数可从与成对刀具和工件相关的切削实验数据中获得,而频率响应函数可从攻丝测试实验中计算得出。然后,将 CFCs 和 FRF 储存在所开发系统的数据库中。基于仿真的颤振预测根据动态切削力和静态切削力的相对性计算 KLD 值,从而预测 NC 程序是否存在颤振。如果预测出存在颤振,则可以调整数控程序,使其不产生颤振。所提出的方法已在现场加工中得到成功验证,显示出非常好的效果。
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引用次数: 0
Pure niobium manufactured by Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion: influence of process parameters and supports on as-built surface quality 利用激光粉末床熔融技术制造纯铌:工艺参数和支撑物对成品表面质量的影响
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-04-01 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13249-9

Abstract

Niobium (Nb) is a transition metal commonly used as an alloying element for increasing strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and other properties of steel and superalloys. Pure Nb, however, is a very interesting metal for its excellent superconductivity. This makes it suitable for producing superconducting magnets and devices for particle acceleration systems and particle physics research (e.g., superconducting resonant cavities). In this work, the production of Nb by the Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-LB/M, also known as Laser Powder Bed Fusion or LPBF) process was examined. Manufacturing parameters were investigated to achieve additively manufactured parts with a relative density higher than 99.5% and showing a down-skin surface roughness in the range of 20–70 μm, depending on the inclination angle. Studies related to the limiting angle of self-supported Nb parts were also conducted, and innovative non-contact supporting structures were successfully developed. These allowed to creation of parts with very small overhang angles, without compromising the downward-facing surfaces; indeed at the same time, the as-built surface finish was improved.

摘要 铌(Nb)是一种过渡金属,通常用作合金元素,以提高钢和超级合金的强度、韧性、耐腐蚀性和其他性能。然而,纯铌是一种非常有趣的金属,因为它具有出色的超导性。这使它适合生产超导磁体和用于粒子加速系统和粒子物理研究的设备(如超导谐振腔)。在这项工作中,研究了通过激光粉末床熔融(PBF-LB/M,也称为激光粉末床熔融或 LPBF)工艺生产铌。对制造参数进行了研究,以实现相对密度高于 99.5%、下表面粗糙度在 20-70 μm 范围内(取决于倾斜角度)的快速制造部件。此外,还对自支撑铌零件的极限角度进行了研究,并成功开发出创新的非接触支撑结构。这样就可以在不影响朝下表面的情况下,制造出悬角很小的零件;同时,还提高了成品的表面光洁度。
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引用次数: 0
A new resistance insert spot welding method for injection-molded FRP–steel component 用于注塑成型玻璃钢组件的新型电阻插入式点焊方法
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13400-6
Hongli Xu, Xiangfan Fang

For weight reduction, multi-material designs comprising metal and fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) components in vehicle body structures have been increasingly used. However, the commonly used resistance spot welding (RSW) technology for car body assembly cannot be employed to join sheet metal and FRPs, limiting the use of FRPs. To solve this problem, a novel resistance insert spot welding (RISW) technique was developed in this work for RSW of steel parts and FRP structure parts made by injection molding. Small inserts were developed by using finite element method and experiments that may be welded to different micro-alloyed and dual-phase sheet steels using the projection welding method. The usual flange width of original equipment manufacturers could be kept unchanged. Using the developed insert and welding parameters, the maximum temperature in the FRPs surrounding the inserts was limited to 255 °C, minimizing the damage to polyamide 6 (PA6) material (with 40 wt% glass fiber). A weldability range between 2.5 and 7 kA could be achieved. The joining strength of RISW between a micro-alloyed HC340 steel in 0.75 mm and 1.5 mm thickness and a 2.5 mm/3.0 mm PA6-GF40 material is 20 to 80% higher than self-piercing riveting (SPR). For high-speed loading, RISW strength increases by 39 to 56% further. Finally, RISW was successfully applied to an FRP–steel roof-frame sub-assembly that consists of 19 simultaneously integrated inserts, achieving 10% weight reduction.

为减轻重量,车身结构中越来越多地采用由金属和纤维增强塑料(FRP)部件组成的多材料设计。然而,车身装配中常用的电阻点焊(RSW)技术不能用于连接金属板和玻璃纤维增强塑料,从而限制了玻璃纤维增强塑料的使用。为解决这一问题,本研究开发了一种新型电阻镶件点焊(RISW)技术,用于钢制零件和注塑成型的玻璃钢结构零件的 RSW。通过有限元法和实验开发出了小型嵌件,可采用凸焊方法焊接到不同的微合金钢和双相钢板上。原始设备制造商通常使用的法兰宽度可以保持不变。利用所开发的嵌入件和焊接参数,嵌入件周围玻璃钢的最高温度被限制在 255 °C,最大限度地减少了对聚酰胺 6 (PA6) 材料(含 40 wt% 玻璃纤维)的损坏。可焊性范围在 2.5 至 7 kA 之间。厚度为 0.75 毫米和 1.5 毫米的微合金 HC340 钢与厚度为 2.5 毫米/3.0 毫米的 PA6-GF40 材料之间的 RISW 连接强度比自穿刺铆接 (SPR) 高 20% 至 80%。在高速加载情况下,RISW 的强度可进一步提高 39% 至 56%。最后,RISW 成功应用于玻璃钢车顶框架组件,该组件由 19 个同时集成的嵌入件组成,重量减轻了 10%。
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引用次数: 0
Modeling of the motorized spindle temperature field considering the thermos-mechanical coupling on constant pressure preloaded bearings 考虑到恒压预载轴承上的热机械耦合的电动主轴温度场建模
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13306-3
Dongxu Su, Yang Li, Wanhua Zhao, Zhe Nie, Huijie Zhang

The thermal characteristics of the motorized spindle significantly affect the machining accuracy and efficiency, and many thermal models have been developed to investigate the factors that affect the spindle thermal characteristics. However, the thermomechanical coupling of the bearings with constant pressure preload is rarely considered in the present works. Thus, this paper developed a transient temperature model of motorized spindle to study the influence of the radial thermal stress on the heat generation of the constant pressure preloaded bearings. In this research, an analytical thermal stress model was established first by simplifying the components of the bearings into a rotating ring geometry to calculate the thermal stress loaded on the bearings. Meanwhile, a transient temperature model of the motorized spindle was established based on the finite element method (FEM). Then, the analytical model was integrated into the spindle transient thermal model, so that the heat generated by bearings and the motorized spindle temperature can be revised constantly, through the iterative calculation between these two models. Finally, verification experiments with different work conditions clarify that the proposed transient thermal characteristic model of the motorized spindle is valid, and the study shows that it is necessary to consider the bearing heat generation induced by the radial thermal stress when the spindle runs at a high speed.

电主轴的热特性对加工精度和效率有很大影响,人们已经建立了许多热模型来研究影响主轴热特性的因素。然而,目前的研究很少考虑恒压预紧轴承的热机械耦合问题。因此,本文建立了电动主轴的瞬态温度模型,以研究径向热应力对恒压预载轴承发热的影响。在这项研究中,首先建立了一个分析热应力模型,将轴承部件简化为旋转环几何形状,以计算轴承上的热应力。同时,基于有限元法(FEM)建立了电主轴的瞬态温度模型。然后,将分析模型集成到主轴瞬态热模型中,通过两个模型之间的迭代计算,不断修正轴承产生的热量和电主轴温度。最后,在不同工况下进行的验证实验表明,所提出的电主轴瞬态热特性模型是有效的,研究还表明,有必要考虑电主轴高速运转时径向热应力引起的轴承发热。
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引用次数: 0
Material-structure-process-performance integrated optimization method of steel/aluminum self-piercing riveted joint 钢/铝自冲铆接接头的材料-结构-工艺-性能综合优化方法
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13483-1

Abstract

To improve the reliability of the connection of various steel/aluminum dissimilar materials, an integrated optimization method of material-structure-process-performance is proposed to realize the optimal design of process parameters. First, the Johnson–Cook material model and failure fracture model are established to ensure the accuracy of the simulation model. Then, an integrated simulation analysis for self-piercing riveted joint forming and tensile mechanical performance is established considering the residual information of the joint forming process. Compared with the experimental results, the accuracy of the established model is higher than the model without considering the residual information. Finally, a hybrid sequence approximate optimization that comprehensively considers the forming quality and tensile mechanical performance is constructed to determine the optimal riveting parameters. Compared with the initial design, the maximum pull-out force, maximum shear force, and maximum peeling force of the optimized design for DC01 and 5754 rivets are increased by 35.66%, 8.6%, and 22.43%, respectively, and the maximum pullout force, maximum shear force and maximum peeling force of the optimized design for HC280 and 5754 rivets are increased by 1.490%, 1.292%, and 6.867%, respectively. Moreover, the accuracy and efficiency of self-piercing riveting process design are improved.

摘要 为提高各种钢铝异种材料连接的可靠性,提出了一种材料-结构-工艺-性能的综合优化方法,以实现工艺参数的优化设计。首先,建立了约翰逊-库克材料模型和失效断裂模型,以确保仿真模型的准确性。然后,考虑接头成形过程的残余信息,建立了自冲铆接接头成形和拉伸力学性能的综合仿真分析。与实验结果相比,所建立模型的精度高于未考虑残余信息的模型。最后,构建了综合考虑成形质量和拉伸机械性能的混合序列近似优化方法,以确定最佳铆接参数。与初始设计相比,DC01 和 5754 铆钉优化设计的最大拉拔力、最大剪切力和最大剥离力分别提高了 35.66%、8.6% 和 22.43%,HC280 和 5754 铆钉优化设计的最大拉拔力、最大剪切力和最大剥离力分别提高了 1.490%、1.292% 和 6.867%。此外,还提高了自冲铆接工艺设计的精度和效率。
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引用次数: 0
Experimental investigations on mechanical properties of AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy joined by laser welding using digital image correlation 利用数字图像相关技术对激光焊接连接的 AA6061-T6 铝合金的机械性能进行实验研究
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13488-w
Jie Sheng, Fanrong Kong, Wei Tong

In industrial applications of laser welding of aluminum alloys, it is often a challenge to find optimal process parameters to produce welded joints of good quality. This study investigates the effect of changes in welding parameters on the resulting welding defects and tensile properties of laser-welded aluminum alloy joints. A high-power disk laser was used for welding 2.54 mm thick AA6061-T6 sheets with four different sets of process parameters. X-ray computed microtomography and full-field microhardness mapping were first used to characterize the as-welded joints. Surface strain mapping based on digital image correlation and a two-mirror optical setup was applied to tensile testing of welded joints up to ductile failure. It was found that the fusion zone of all four laser-welded joints has similar microhardness levels and spatial distributions. Small pores were detected in all four weld joints, except one had a few large pores. Both microstructural heterogeneities and surface geometric irregularities were found to induce highly non-uniform local tensile deformation in laser-welded joints. One set of laser welding parameters was identified to produce the aluminum welds with the best tensile properties even though its weld joint may contain a few relatively large pores.

在铝合金激光焊接的工业应用中,如何找到最佳工艺参数以生产出优质焊点往往是一项挑战。本研究探讨了焊接参数变化对激光焊接铝合金接头焊接缺陷和拉伸性能的影响。使用高功率盘式激光器焊接 2.54 毫米厚的 AA6061-T6 板材,并设置了四套不同的工艺参数。首先使用 X 射线计算显微层析成像和全场显微硬度绘图来表征焊接接头。基于数字图像相关和双镜光学装置的表面应变绘图被用于焊接接头的拉伸测试,直至韧性破坏。结果发现,所有四个激光焊接接头的熔合区都具有相似的显微硬度水平和空间分布。除了一个焊点有几个大气孔外,其他四个焊点都检测到了小气孔。研究发现,微观结构异质性和表面几何不规则性会导致激光焊接接头产生高度不均匀的局部拉伸变形。确定了一组激光焊接参数,以产生具有最佳拉伸性能的铝焊缝,即使其焊点可能含有几个相对较大的气孔。
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引用次数: 0
Micro-machining of glassy polymers: effect of tool wear and process parameters on the cutting-induced shape defects 玻璃态聚合物的微加工:刀具磨损和加工参数对切削引起的形状缺陷的影响
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13476-0
Faissal Chegdani, Mohamed El Mansori, Stéphane Bessonnet, Sébastien Pinault

This paper aims to investigate the contribution of tool wear and process parameters to the shape defects induced by the micro-machining of glassy polymers such as polycarbonate. An experimental approach is proposed in this study using an instrumented orthogonal cutting configuration. Diamond inserts have been considered as a cutting tool and have been subjected to different levels of accelerated wear. The worn tools were first characterized to identify the wear mechanisms that occurred on the active cutting zone and were then used to perform orthogonal cutting experiments on polycarbonate. Micro-cutting depth values (3–20 µm) were considered to respect the micro-machining configuration. Chip morphology, cutting forces, and machined surfaces’ topography have been acquired to analyze and assess the effectively removed material depth regarding the theoretical cutting depth for each worn tool. Results show that the increase of the cutting edge radius is the main wear mechanism that occurred in the diamond inserts. This tool wear evolution was found to be the most influential factor on the induced shape defect by increasing the elastic deformation of polycarbonate rather than its shear when using micro-cutting depths, which induces a spring-back of polycarbonate after cutting.

本文旨在研究聚碳酸酯等玻璃态聚合物的微加工过程中,刀具磨损和工艺参数对形状缺陷的影响。本研究提出了一种使用仪器正交切削配置的实验方法。金刚石刀片被视为切削工具,并受到不同程度的加速磨损。首先对磨损的工具进行特征描述,以确定发生在有效切削区的磨损机制,然后在聚碳酸酯上进行正交切削实验。微切削深度值(3-20 微米)被认为是微加工配置。通过采集切屑形态、切削力和加工表面形貌,分析和评估了每种磨损刀具理论切削深度的有效去除材料深度。结果表明,切削刃半径的增加是金刚石刀片的主要磨损机制。在使用微切割深度时,这种刀具磨损演变会增加聚碳酸酯的弹性变形而不是剪切力,从而导致聚碳酸酯在切割后出现回弹,因此被认为是诱发形状缺陷的最大影响因素。
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引用次数: 0
Multi-layer solid-state ultrasonic additive manufacturing of aluminum/copper: local properties and texture 铝/铜的多层固态超声增材制造:局部特性和纹理
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-26 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13490-2

Abstract

Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) is an advanced joining technique that utilizes ultrasonic vibrations to bond layers of metal foil together. UAM offers several benefits over traditional manufacturing methods, including enhanced design flexibility and reduced material waste, and its potential applications in various industries such as aerospace, automotive, and biomedical engineering are being actively explored. The study employs a nanoindentation apparatus to investigate the effect of the UAM process on the local mechanical properties of the bonded interface, along with changes in microstructure, which were investigated using scanning electron microscopy and electron back-scattered diffraction. The results revealed a significant correlation between material hardness and local plasticity. EBSD has revealed that the grain size distribution of Al far from the interface contains 57% of the grains less than 3 µm in size, while at the interface this number rises to approximately 78%, indicating that the average grain size decreases as it approaches the interface. This result is consistent with nanoindentation results that demonstrated a gradual change in the hardness of Al foil far from the interface to close to the interface (the maximum penetration depth near the interface was 500 nm less than far from the interface). Both EBSD and nanoindentation disclose the effect of work hardening close to the interface, which is related to dislocation accumulation with a density of (8.6times {10}^{-10} {{text{cm}}}^{-2}) beneath the interface. The consistency of hardness and Young’s modulus with the pole figures and microscopic images demonstrated that plasticity flow and fine grain distribution would only occur in the vicinity of the interface in the softer metal region. Although the harder metal did not exhibit plasticity or recrystallization, the hardness, and Young’s modulus map indicated the formation of a layer of small grains close to the interface on the aluminum side owing to strain hardening and dynamic recrystallization.

摘要 超声波增材制造(UAM)是一种先进的连接技术,它利用超声波振动将金属箔层粘合在一起。与传统制造方法相比,UAM 具有多种优势,包括提高设计灵活性和减少材料浪费,目前正在积极探索其在航空航天、汽车和生物医学工程等各个行业的潜在应用。本研究采用纳米压痕仪研究了 UAM 工艺对粘合界面局部机械性能的影响以及微观结构的变化,并使用扫描电子显微镜和电子反向散射衍射进行了研究。结果表明,材料硬度和局部塑性之间存在明显的相关性。EBSD 显示,在远离界面的铝晶粒尺寸分布中,有 57% 的晶粒尺寸小于 3 µm,而在界面处,这一数字上升到约 78%,表明平均晶粒尺寸随着接近界面而减小。这一结果与纳米压痕测试结果一致,后者表明铝箔的硬度从远离界面逐渐向靠近界面的方向变化(靠近界面的最大穿透深度比远离界面的小 500 nm)。EBSD 和纳米压痕都揭示了靠近界面处加工硬化的影响,这与界面下方密度为 (8.6times {10}^{-10} {{text{cm}}}^{-2}) 的位错堆积有关。硬度和杨氏模量与极值图和显微图像的一致性表明,塑性流动和细晶粒分布只会发生在较软金属区域的界面附近。虽然较硬的金属没有表现出塑性或再结晶,但硬度和杨氏模量图显示,由于应变硬化和动态再结晶,在铝侧界面附近形成了一层小晶粒层。
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引用次数: 0
Manipulation order optimization in industrial pick-and-place operations: application to textile and leather industry 工业拾放操作中的操纵顺序优化:在纺织和皮革业中的应用
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-25 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13436-8
Francisco José Martínez-Peral, Héctor Migallón, Jorge Borrell-Méndez, Miguel Martínez-Rach, Carlos Pérez-Vidal

This work addresses the problem of the development of a robotic system for the picking of parts cut by a CNC machine and the optimization of the sequencing of this picking process. An automated parts collection system is optimized to reduce the time required to perform the task of both picking and the subsequent classification by the type of part. The automated picking system, which is located at the end of a cutting machine, uses a robot equipped with an additional axis to expand its working space. Therefore, in this proposal, the industrial equipment necessary to automate this process is designed and the process to be optimized is computationally modeled. In particular, three discrete optimization algorithms are analyzed, with different evolution strategies and operators, but all of them are free of specific configuration parameters. The whole process is shown in this research, from the design of the procedure to the design of the tool, the algorithm selection, and elements validation. Finally, the first steps towards its industrial implementation are presented, and the hypothesis behind this project is validated.

这项工作的目的是开发一种机器人系统,用于拾取数控机床切割的零件,并优化拾取过程的顺序。对自动零件收集系统进行了优化,以减少执行拾取和随后按零件类型分类任务所需的时间。自动拾取系统位于切割机的末端,使用配备附加轴的机器人来扩大其工作空间。因此,在本提案中,设计了实现这一过程自动化所需的工业设备,并对需要优化的过程进行了计算建模。特别是,分析了三种离散优化算法,它们具有不同的演化策略和运算符,但都不受特定配置参数的限制。这项研究展示了从程序设计到工具设计、算法选择和要素验证的整个过程。最后,介绍了工业化实施的第一步,并验证了本项目背后的假设。
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引用次数: 0
Automatic welding-robot programming based on product-process-resource models 基于产品-工艺-资源模型的焊接机器人自动编程
IF 3.4 3区 工程技术 Q1 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-03-25 DOI: 10.1007/s00170-024-13409-x
Ioan-Matei Sarivan, Ole Madsen, Brian Vejrum Wæhrens

This paper describes a novel end-to-end approach for automatic welding-robot programming based on a product-process-resource (PPR) model, for one-of-a-kind manufacturing systems. Traditionally, the information needed to program a welding robot is processed and transferred along the manufacturing organisation’s value chain by using several stand-alone digital systems which require extensive human input and high skill to operate. A PPR model is proposed through this research as a platform for storing and processing the necessary information along the value chain seamlessly. Unlike existing approaches which make use of complex algorithms to automatically identify the weldment seams, the approach suggested in this research makes use of information already digitalised by design engineers under the form of ISO 2553:2019 compliant weldment annotations. Hence, the PPR model contains the weldment annotations; it enables the automatic programming of welding robots and reduces human input down to a few minutes only. The applicability in manufacturing of the theoretical concept is demonstrated through technical implementations tested in the laboratory and on the value chain of an engineering-to-order (ETO) industrial partner involved in the metal fabrication industry. The experiments were conducted by creating several products using the proposed artefact. Experiments show that automatic programming of welding robots can be achieved using PPR models. The conducted experiments showed a reduction of about 80% in human input measured in terms of time, when using the proposed solution. The reduction of the human input can free up skilled labour resource which ETO SMEs can reallocate to other tasks.

本文介绍了一种基于产品-过程-资源(PPR)模型的端到端自动焊接机器人编程新方法,适用于独一无二的制造系统。传统上,焊接机器人编程所需的信息是通过几个独立的数字系统沿着制造组织的价值链进行处理和传输的,这些系统需要大量的人力输入和高技能操作。本研究提出了一个 PPR 模型,作为沿着价值链无缝存储和处理必要信息的平台。与利用复杂算法自动识别焊缝的现有方法不同,本研究提出的方法利用的是设计工程师已经数字化的信息,其形式符合 ISO 2553:2019 标准的焊缝注释。因此,PPR 模型包含焊缝注释;它可以实现焊接机器人的自动编程,并将人工输入减少到几分钟。该理论概念在制造业中的适用性,通过在实验室和一家从事金属制造行业的 "按订单生产(ETO)"工业合作伙伴的价值链上进行的技术实施测试得到了证明。实验是通过使用所提出的人工制品制作若干产品进行的。实验表明,使用 PPR 模型可以实现焊接机器人的自动编程。实验结果表明,在使用所提出的解决方案时,以时间计算的人工投入减少了约 80%。人力投入的减少可以释放熟练劳动力资源,ETO 中小型企业可以将其重新分配到其他任务中。
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引用次数: 0
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