Pub Date : 2025-07-18DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152700
Kacper Bąk , Michał Mordarski , Tomasz Iskra , Tomasz Kozioł , Dariusz Lusina , Apurba Patra , Friedrich Paulsen , Jerzy Walocha
Background
The trochlear nerve is the fourth cranial nerve with the thinnest and the longest intracranial course of them all. The trochlear nerve is the only cranial nerve that originates from the dorsal part of the midbrain and innervates the contralateral superior oblique muscle. The number of its rootlets can vary, ranging from 1 to 6.
Material and Methods
In this study of body donors, we dissected and examined 87 trochlear nerves from 44 body donors to determine the number of rootlets. Our results were then combined with data from previously published studies on the same topic.
Results
Of the 87 nerves analyzed, one rootlet was found 26 times, two rootlets 43 times, three rootlets 13 times and four rootlets 5 times. After combining our results with other articles, the total number of specimens analyzed reached 663, with the following distribution: one rootlet - 35.90 %; two rootlets - 47.21 %; three rootlets - 12.82 %; four rootlets - 3.17 %; five rootlets - 0.75 %; six rootlets - 0.15 %. The longest rootlet was found in the three-rootlet pattern and measured 9.36 mm (SD = 0.22 mm).
Conclusion
Knowledge of the anatomy of the trochlear nerve and its rootlets plays a decisive role in complex microsurgical and endoscopic transcranial or endonasal procedures in the area of the supracerebellar region and middle cranial fossa.
{"title":"Variations in the number of rootlets of the trochlear nerve","authors":"Kacper Bąk , Michał Mordarski , Tomasz Iskra , Tomasz Kozioł , Dariusz Lusina , Apurba Patra , Friedrich Paulsen , Jerzy Walocha","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152700","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152700","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The trochlear nerve is the fourth cranial nerve with the thinnest and the longest intracranial course of them all. The trochlear nerve is the only cranial nerve that originates from the dorsal part of the midbrain and innervates the contralateral superior oblique muscle. The number of its rootlets can vary, ranging from 1 to 6.</div></div><div><h3>Material and Methods</h3><div>In this study of body donors, we dissected and examined 87 trochlear nerves from 44 body donors to determine the number of rootlets. Our results were then combined with data from previously published studies on the same topic.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Of the 87 nerves analyzed, one rootlet was found 26 times, two rootlets 43 times, three rootlets 13 times and four rootlets 5 times. After combining our results with other articles, the total number of specimens analyzed reached 663, with the following distribution: one rootlet - 35.90 %; two rootlets - 47.21 %; three rootlets - 12.82 %; four rootlets - 3.17 %; five rootlets - 0.75 %; six rootlets - 0.15 %. The longest rootlet was found in the three-rootlet pattern and measured 9.36 mm (SD = 0.22 mm).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Knowledge of the anatomy of the trochlear nerve and its rootlets plays a decisive role in complex microsurgical and endoscopic transcranial or endonasal procedures in the area of the supracerebellar region and middle cranial fossa.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 152700"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144676791","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-18DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152699
Giovanni Piccinini , Mariangela Iannello , Maurizio Lazzari, Pietro Cacialli, Valeria Franceschini, Maria Gabriella Maurizii , Liliana Milani
A same set of genes is associated to germline determination and differentiation in almost all Metazoa. Previous studies in several animals, also from distantly related taxa, showed a close association between germline determinants in germ granules and mitochondria, with observations at transmission electron microscopy and immunological approaches. However further investigations are needed to document their respective distribution and elucidate the role of mitochondria in the process of germ granule formation. In the present study we used an emerging animal model to study germline differentiation, Poecilia reticulata, also known as guppy, and different experimental approaches: western blot, immunolocalization, and transmission electron microscopy to investigate the distribution of mitochondria and germ granules during oogenesis. We used anti-Vasa, anti-TDRKH, and anti-TDRD7 to label germline markers, anti-TOMM20 to localize mitochondria, and anti-PLD6 to highlight germline mitochondria. Our observations in previtellogenic oocytes support the co-participation of the nucleus and mitochondria in the production of germ plasm-related material. In previtellogenic oocytes, immunodetection revealed the presence of the germline markers and PLD6 staining in the perinuclear area. The most striking evidence is the observation in the same cell type of plume-shaped structures that at electron microscopy appear as formed by mitochondrial aggregates intermingled with electron-dense germ granules distributed around the nuclear envelope. Overall, our results support the close association between germ granule and mitochondria during germline differentiation, strengthening the foundations for further insights.
{"title":"Morphological and immunological approach for studying the distribution pattern of mitochondria and germ granules during oogenesis of the guppy (Poecilia reticulata)","authors":"Giovanni Piccinini , Mariangela Iannello , Maurizio Lazzari, Pietro Cacialli, Valeria Franceschini, Maria Gabriella Maurizii , Liliana Milani","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152699","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152699","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A same set of genes is associated to germline determination and differentiation in almost all Metazoa. Previous studies in several animals, also from distantly related taxa, showed a close association between germline determinants in germ granules and mitochondria, with observations at transmission electron microscopy and immunological approaches. However further investigations are needed to document their respective distribution and elucidate the role of mitochondria in the process of germ granule formation. In the present study we used an emerging animal model to study germline differentiation, <em>Poecilia reticulata</em>, also known as guppy, and different experimental approaches: western blot, immunolocalization, and transmission electron microscopy to investigate the distribution of mitochondria and germ granules during oogenesis. We used anti-Vasa, anti-TDRKH, and anti-TDRD7 to label germline markers, anti-TOMM20 to localize mitochondria, and anti-PLD6 to highlight germline mitochondria. Our observations in previtellogenic oocytes support the co-participation of the nucleus and mitochondria in the production of germ plasm-related material. In previtellogenic oocytes, immunodetection revealed the presence of the germline markers and PLD6 staining in the perinuclear area. The most striking evidence is the observation in the same cell type of plume-shaped structures that at electron microscopy appear as formed by mitochondrial aggregates intermingled with electron-dense germ granules distributed around the nuclear envelope. Overall, our results support the close association between germ granule and mitochondria during germline differentiation, strengthening the foundations for further insights.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 152699"},"PeriodicalIF":1.7,"publicationDate":"2025-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144676780","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-11DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152694
Rafał Zych , Dawid Dziedzic , Katarzyna Bokwa-Dąbrowska , Dan Mocanu , Pawel Szaro
Background
An accurate assessment of the peroneal tendon position is essential in ankle MRI, yet classical anatomical descriptions may not reflect the full range of normal anatomical variation. This study aimed to classify anatomical variants in peroneus brevis position and assess associations with tendon shape, size, and the presence of the peroneus quartus muscle and low-lying peroneus brevis muscle.
Methods
This observational cohort study included 230 ankle magnetic resonance examinations (3 T) with normal peroneal tendons. Peroneus brevis position relative to the peroneus longus was categorized into four types based on axial MRI: medial (no overlap), overlap with medial protrusion (extension beyond the medial margin of the longus), overlap with lateral protrusion (beyond the lateral margin), and overlap with both. Tendon shape was classified as general flat, flattened convex medially, flattened convex laterally, or oval. Associations between position and shape were tested using chi-square. Differences in cross-sectional area (mm²) and width (mm) across groups were assessed with analysis of variance and Tukey’s post hoc test. A regression model identified predictors of tendon overlap.
Results
The most common position was overlap with medial protrusion (72.0 %), followed by medial, lateral, and combined protrusions. Position was significantly associated with shape (p < 0.001); oval tendons were typically medial, while flattened tendons overlapped. Width and cross-sectional area differed significantly across positions (p = 0.0088), with the largest area in tendons protruding medially and laterally (16.9 mm²). Width correlated strongly with overlap (r = 0.79, p < 0.001) and was the strongest predictor in regression (β=0.51, p < 0.001). Peroneus quartus was independently associated with increased overlap (β=0.22, p = 0.03), while low-lying peroneus brevis muscle showed no significant effect.
Conclusion
Peroneus brevis position is highly variable and depends on its shape, width, and the presence of peroneus quartus. These variants are significantly related to tendon shape and width and may mimic peroneal instability on imaging.
背景：在踝关节MRI中，准确评估腓骨肌腱的位置至关重要，然而经典的解剖描述可能无法反映正常解剖变化的全部范围。本研究旨在对腓骨短肌位置的解剖变异进行分类，并评估其与肌腱形状、大小以及腓骨四角肌和低处腓骨短肌存在的关系。方法本观察性队列研究纳入230例踝关节磁共振检查（3例 T），腓骨肌腱正常。根据轴向MRI将腓骨短肌相对于腓骨长肌的位置分为四种类型：内侧（无重叠）、与内侧突出重叠（延伸到长肌内侧边缘之外）、与外侧突出重叠（延伸到外侧边缘之外）、与两者重叠。肌腱形状分为一般扁平、内侧扁平凸、外侧扁平凸或卵圆形。位置和形状之间的关联使用卡方检验。采用方差分析和Tukey事后检验评估各组间横截面积（mm²）和宽度（mm）的差异。回归模型确定了肌腱重叠的预测因子。结果以与内侧突出重叠最多（72.0 %），其次为内侧突出、外侧突出和合并突出。体位与形状显著相关（p <； 0.001）；卵圆形肌腱通常位于内侧，扁平肌腱重叠。不同位置的宽度和横截面积差异显著（p = 0.0088），其中内侧和外侧突出的肌腱面积最大（16.9 mm²）。宽度与重叠密切相关（r = 0.79,p <； 0.001），是回归中最强的预测因子（β=0.51, p <； 0.001）。腓骨四角肌与重叠增加独立相关（β=0.22, p = 0.03），而低洼的腓骨短肌无显著影响。结论腓骨短肌的位置变化很大，与腓骨短肌的形状、宽度和腓骨四角肌的存在有关。这些变异与肌腱形状和宽度显著相关，在影像学上可能模拟腓骨不稳定。
{"title":"MRI evaluation of peroneus brevis tendon position: Anatomical variants in individuals with normal peroneal tendons to improve recognition and prevent misdiagnosis","authors":"Rafał Zych , Dawid Dziedzic , Katarzyna Bokwa-Dąbrowska , Dan Mocanu , Pawel Szaro","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152694","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152694","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>An accurate assessment of the peroneal tendon position is essential in ankle MRI, yet classical anatomical descriptions may not reflect the full range of normal anatomical variation. This study aimed to classify anatomical variants in peroneus brevis position and assess associations with tendon shape, size, and the presence of the peroneus quartus muscle and low-lying peroneus brevis muscle.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>This observational cohort study included 230 ankle magnetic resonance examinations (3 T) with normal peroneal tendons. Peroneus brevis position relative to the peroneus longus was categorized into four types based on axial MRI: medial (no overlap), overlap with medial protrusion (extension beyond the medial margin of the longus), overlap with lateral protrusion (beyond the lateral margin), and overlap with both. Tendon shape was classified as general flat, flattened convex medially, flattened convex laterally, or oval. Associations between position and shape were tested using chi-square. Differences in cross-sectional area (mm²) and width (mm) across groups were assessed with analysis of variance and Tukey’s post hoc test. A regression model identified predictors of tendon overlap.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The most common position was overlap with medial protrusion (72.0 %), followed by medial, lateral, and combined protrusions. Position was significantly associated with shape (p < 0.001); oval tendons were typically medial, while flattened tendons overlapped. Width and cross-sectional area differed significantly across positions (p = 0.0088), with the largest area in tendons protruding medially and laterally (16.9 mm²). Width correlated strongly with overlap (r = 0.79, p < 0.001) and was the strongest predictor in regression (β=0.51, p < 0.001). Peroneus quartus was independently associated with increased overlap (β=0.22, p = 0.03), while low-lying peroneus brevis muscle showed no significant effect.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Peroneus brevis position is highly variable and depends on its shape, width, and the presence of peroneus quartus. These variants are significantly related to tendon shape and width and may mimic peroneal instability on imaging.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152694"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144614156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Cleft lip and palate (CLP) is a common congenital anomaly affecting the maxillofacial region, influenced by genetic and environmental factors. This study aims to investigate facial development in adult CLP patients and compare it with healthy controls.
Methods
A total of 67 adult CLP patients and 67 healthy controls were included in this study. All participants underwent cephalometric analysis using computed tomography (CT) scans taken in a closed-mouth position. Various cephalometric parameters, including SNA, SNB, SNPog angles, NL-ML, NSL-ML, NSL-NL, N-ANS, ANS-Me, N-Me, PMP-A, S-PMP, and S-Go lengths, were measured. Statistical comparisons between groups were conducted using Mann-Whitney U, Student's t, and Welch's t-tests, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Significant differences were observed between CLP patients and controls in several parameters. SNA and PMP-A values were lower in the CLP group, indicating midface retrusion and effective maxillary hypoplasia.
Results
NSL-NL angles were higher in CLP patients, reflecting an increased palatal plane angle. SNB and SNPog values were also lower in CLP patients, indicating mandibular retrusion. N-ANS and total facial height (N-Me) were greater in the CLP group, while ANS-Me and posterior maxillofacial lengths (S-PMP and S-Go) showed no significant differences.
Conclusions
Adult CLP patients exhibit significant deviations in facial development compared to healthy controls, characterized by midface retrusion, effective maxillary hypoplasia, and increased vertical facial dimensions. These findings highlight the complex interplay between intrinsic growth deficiencies and surgical interventions, underscoring the need for tailored treatment strategies to optimize facial development outcomes in CLP patients.
{"title":"Anatomical insights into midface retrusion and maxillary hypoplasia in adult cleft lip and palate patients post-skeletal maturity","authors":"Gokce Yildiran , Ekrem Solmaz , Zekeriya Tosun , Zeliha Fazliogullari","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152698","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152698","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Cleft lip and palate (CLP) is a common congenital anomaly affecting the maxillofacial region, influenced by genetic and environmental factors. This study aims to investigate facial development in adult CLP patients and compare it with healthy controls.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A total of 67 adult CLP patients and 67 healthy controls were included in this study. All participants underwent cephalometric analysis using computed tomography (CT) scans taken in a closed-mouth position. Various cephalometric parameters, including SNA, SNB, SNPog angles, NL-ML, NSL-ML, NSL-NL, N-ANS, ANS-Me, N-Me, PMP-A, S-PMP, and S-Go lengths, were measured. Statistical comparisons between groups were conducted using Mann-Whitney U, Student's <em>t</em>, and Welch's <em>t</em>-tests, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Significant differences were observed between CLP patients and controls in several parameters. SNA and PMP-A values were lower in the CLP group, indicating midface retrusion and effective maxillary hypoplasia.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>NSL-NL angles were higher in CLP patients, reflecting an increased palatal plane angle. SNB and SNPog values were also lower in CLP patients, indicating mandibular retrusion. N-ANS and total facial height (N-Me) were greater in the CLP group, while ANS-Me and posterior maxillofacial lengths (S-PMP and S-Go) showed no significant differences.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Adult CLP patients exhibit significant deviations in facial development compared to healthy controls, characterized by midface retrusion, effective maxillary hypoplasia, and increased vertical facial dimensions. These findings highlight the complex interplay between intrinsic growth deficiencies and surgical interventions, underscoring the need for tailored treatment strategies to optimize facial development outcomes in CLP patients.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152698"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144597568","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-09DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152695
Daniel Medina-Aguinaga , Nancy Mirto-Aguilar , Yolanda Cruz-Gomez , Meleine Landry Konan , Jazmín García-Román , Maxwell Boakye , Charles H. Hubscher
The Yucatan minipig is gaining widespread use in studies focused on spinal cord injury. As a large animal model, it offers unique advantages for developing novel and more effective therapies. Successful neuromodulation experiments require precise access to central and peripheral neural structures, which depends on a thorough understanding of topographical anatomy and advanced surgical techniques. The current study describes the topography of the pelvic organs in the female Yucatan minipig, as well as a surgical approach to the principal nerves and branches controlling the pelvic viscera. Eight postmortem specimens, five fixed with 4 % paraformaldehyde and three non-fixed, were used to perform dissections under stereoscopy. Muscles that form the lateral and ventrolateral walls of the pelvis were identified. The pudendal nerve, formed by S2 and S3 contributions, includes an extrapelvic component formed by S1 and S2 contributions. The hypogastric nerve converged with the pelvic nerve (formed by the splanchnic branch of the S2 trunk and two anastomotic splanchnic branches from S1 and S3) at the pelvic plexus which supplies the autonomic innervation of the urinary bladder, urethra, vagina, rectum, and cavernous tissue of the clitoris. Together, the current anatomical and neuroanatomical descriptions provide a comprehensive understanding of the structural anatomy of the urogenital and colorectal regions in the female Yucatan minipig.
{"title":"A surgical and functional approach to the pelvic gross neuroanatomy of the female Yucatan minipig","authors":"Daniel Medina-Aguinaga , Nancy Mirto-Aguilar , Yolanda Cruz-Gomez , Meleine Landry Konan , Jazmín García-Román , Maxwell Boakye , Charles H. Hubscher","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152695","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152695","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Yucatan minipig is gaining widespread use in studies focused on spinal cord injury. As a large animal model, it offers unique advantages for developing novel and more effective therapies. Successful neuromodulation experiments require precise access to central and peripheral neural structures, which depends on a thorough understanding of topographical anatomy and advanced surgical techniques. The current study describes the topography of the pelvic organs in the female Yucatan minipig, as well as a surgical approach to the principal nerves and branches controlling the pelvic viscera. Eight postmortem specimens, five fixed with 4 % paraformaldehyde and three non-fixed, were used to perform dissections under stereoscopy. Muscles that form the lateral and ventrolateral walls of the pelvis were identified. The pudendal nerve, formed by S2 and S3 contributions, includes an extrapelvic component formed by S1 and S2 contributions. The hypogastric nerve converged with the pelvic nerve (formed by the splanchnic branch of the S2 trunk and two anastomotic splanchnic branches from S1 and S3) at the pelvic plexus which supplies the autonomic innervation of the urinary bladder, urethra, vagina, rectum, and cavernous tissue of the clitoris. Together, the current anatomical and neuroanatomical descriptions provide a comprehensive understanding of the structural anatomy of the urogenital and colorectal regions in the female Yucatan minipig.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152695"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144621537","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-08DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152696
Łukasz Olewnik , Ingrid C. Landfald , Kacper Ruzik , Łukasz Gołek , Bartosz Gonera
Background
The soleus muscle plays a vital role in postural stability, ankle plantarflexion, and locomotion. Despite its functional importance, it remains underrepresented in anatomical and clinical literature compared to the gastrocnemius. Recent studies suggest that the soleus displays substantial morphological variability, which may influence its function, susceptibility to injury, and relevance in surgical procedures.
Aim
This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the anatomical and architectural variations of the soleus muscle and to explore their biomechanical and clinical implications.
Methods
A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted, focusing on cadaveric, radiological, and surgical studies addressing variations in soleus morphology, fiber architecture, tendon insertion, and clinical applications.
Results
The soleus demonstrates notable interindividual differences in pennation angle, length, shape, and insertion. These morphological features affect its functional capacity and should be considered in injury diagnostics (e.g., differentiating “tennis leg”), Achilles tendon rehabilitation, and muscle flap harvesting. Emerging evidence supports the need for pennation-specific training approaches and highlights the value of imaging and AI-assisted assessment in personalizing treatment.
Conclusion
Understanding the morphological diversity of the soleus is crucial for clinicians and surgeons alike. Future efforts should focus on standardizing classification systems, expanding comparative research, and integrating advanced imaging technologies to enhance anatomical knowledge and optimize patient-specific care.
{"title":"The forgotten powerhouse: Variations of the soleus muscle and their clinical relevance","authors":"Łukasz Olewnik , Ingrid C. Landfald , Kacper Ruzik , Łukasz Gołek , Bartosz Gonera","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152696","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152696","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The soleus muscle plays a vital role in postural stability, ankle plantarflexion, and locomotion. Despite its functional importance, it remains underrepresented in anatomical and clinical literature compared to the gastrocnemius. Recent studies suggest that the soleus displays substantial morphological variability, which may influence its function, susceptibility to injury, and relevance in surgical procedures.</div></div><div><h3>Aim</h3><div>This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the anatomical and architectural variations of the soleus muscle and to explore their biomechanical and clinical implications.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted, focusing on cadaveric, radiological, and surgical studies addressing variations in soleus morphology, fiber architecture, tendon insertion, and clinical applications.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The soleus demonstrates notable interindividual differences in pennation angle, length, shape, and insertion. These morphological features affect its functional capacity and should be considered in injury diagnostics (e.g., differentiating “tennis leg”), Achilles tendon rehabilitation, and muscle flap harvesting. Emerging evidence supports the need for pennation-specific training approaches and highlights the value of imaging and AI-assisted assessment in personalizing treatment.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Understanding the morphological diversity of the soleus is crucial for clinicians and surgeons alike. Future efforts should focus on standardizing classification systems, expanding comparative research, and integrating advanced imaging technologies to enhance anatomical knowledge and optimize patient-specific care.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152696"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144610584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-07-07DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152697
Ren Chen , Liyan He , Xiaojiao He , Xiaolin Jiang , Shengbo Yang
Background
Masseter hypertrophy impacts facial aesthetics. Botulinum neurotoxin type A(BoNT-A) injection is common, but the best site is unclear. This study seeks the optimal injection site for better facial contouring.
Material
Sixty rabbits were used to assess BoNT-A injection efficacy at the center of the intramuscular nerve dense region (CINDR). The CINDR of the masseter muscle was localized in 24 adult cadavers using Sihler’s staining and spiral computed tomography scanning. The line connecting the mouth corner to the earlobe base (horizontal reference) and the intersection of the line perpendicular to the mandibular angle and the zygomatic arch lower edge (longitudinal reference) were used as reference lines.
Results
One week after BoNT-A injection, reduced muscle thickness and muscle fiber cross-sectional area, and increased muscle atrophy factor (muscle ring finger-1) expression were observed in rabbits from both conventional and CINDR injection groups, but the changes were more pronounced in the CINDR injection group. The surface position of CINDR in human masseter muscle was located at 66.56 %±1.55 % along the horizontal reference line and 73.04 %±1.29 % along the longitudinal reference line with a puncture depth of 13.26 ± 0.44 mm.
Conclusions
The CINDR of the masseter muscle is an optimal BoNT-A injection site for cosmetic applications enhancing the targeting accuracy and efficacy of BoNT-A injections.
{"title":"Experimental study of the center of the intramuscular nerve dense region of the masseter muscle as the optimal botulinum neurotoxin A injection site","authors":"Ren Chen , Liyan He , Xiaojiao He , Xiaolin Jiang , Shengbo Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152697","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152697","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Masseter hypertrophy impacts facial aesthetics. Botulinum neurotoxin type A(BoNT-A) injection is common, but the best site is unclear. This study seeks the optimal injection site for better facial contouring.</div></div><div><h3>Material</h3><div>Sixty rabbits were used to assess BoNT-A injection efficacy at the center of the intramuscular nerve dense region (CINDR). The CINDR of the masseter muscle was localized in 24 adult cadavers using Sihler’s staining and spiral computed tomography scanning. The line connecting the mouth corner to the earlobe base (horizontal reference) and the intersection of the line perpendicular to the mandibular angle and the zygomatic arch lower edge (longitudinal reference) were used as reference lines.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>One week after BoNT-A injection, reduced muscle thickness and muscle fiber cross-sectional area, and increased muscle atrophy factor (muscle ring finger-1) expression were observed in rabbits from both conventional and CINDR injection groups, but the changes were more pronounced in the CINDR injection group. The surface position of CINDR in human masseter muscle was located at 66.56 %±1.55 % along the horizontal reference line and 73.04 %±1.29 % along the longitudinal reference line with a puncture depth of 13.26 ± 0.44 mm.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The CINDR of the masseter muscle is an optimal BoNT-A injection site for cosmetic applications enhancing the targeting accuracy and efficacy of BoNT-A injections.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152697"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144595375","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-06-19DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152692
Yeşim Aslan Kanmaz , Sadık Yılmaz
Background
The avian pelvis is known to differ in shape between males and females due to the need for females to lay eggs, with egg shape correlating to pelvic shape. Geese breeding is done as an alternative to the poultry sector in our country for meat and, to a lesser extent, eggs. However, in recent years, there has been an increase in the number of those who are breeding geese as large enterprises. Understanding the anatomical structure of geese is essential. With 3D-modeling studies the use of artificial intelligence has increased and thus artificial intelligence has taken its place in the definition of anatomical structures. Accordingly, this study was conducted to determine the sexual dimorphism of this species by determining the three-dimensional pelvimetric data of the pelvic region of German Mast geese by gender, and also to provide reference data for zooarchaeology, taxonomy, obstetrics, and gynecology studies.
Materials and methods
In our study, 40 (20 female and 20 male) adult (1.5–2 years old) German Mast geese were used. Adult males weighed an average of 9.0 kg, while females weighed around 8.0 kg. Computerized tomography images were converted into 3D. Measurement points were determined, and morphometric measurements were taken. Subsequently, the statistical analysis of the obtained measurement values was performed.
Results
In Table 1, L1, L2, L3, L3, L5, L6, L8, L8, L9, L10, L11 and A1 measurement parameters of the pelvis showed that males were larger than females. L4, RA2, and LA2 measurement parameters showed that females were larger than males. L1, L2, and L9 measurement points were statistically significant (P < 0.05).
Conclusion
The results of this study can be taken as a reference in the evaluation of CT images of this species and can be used in various obstetric and gynecological diseases and in studies in the field of zooarchaeology and forensic sciences. In addition, 3D-models obtained using cross-sectional imaging devices can be helpful in the education of the anatomy of this species.
{"title":"Sex determination in German Mast geese (Anser anser) with 3D modeling pelvimetry examination","authors":"Yeşim Aslan Kanmaz , Sadık Yılmaz","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152692","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152692","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The avian pelvis is known to differ in shape between males and females due to the need for females to lay eggs, with egg shape correlating to pelvic shape. Geese breeding is done as an alternative to the poultry sector in our country for meat and, to a lesser extent, eggs. However, in recent years, there has been an increase in the number of those who are breeding geese as large enterprises. Understanding the anatomical structure of geese is essential. With 3D-modeling studies the use of artificial intelligence has increased and thus artificial intelligence has taken its place in the definition of anatomical structures. Accordingly, this study was conducted to determine the sexual dimorphism of this species by determining the three-dimensional pelvimetric data of the pelvic region of German Mast geese by gender, and also to provide reference data for zooarchaeology, taxonomy, obstetrics, and gynecology studies.</div></div><div><h3>Materials and methods</h3><div>In our study, 40 (20 female and 20 male) adult (1.5–2 years old) German Mast geese were used. Adult males weighed an average of 9.0 kg, while females weighed around 8.0 kg. Computerized tomography images were converted into 3D. Measurement points were determined, and morphometric measurements were taken. Subsequently, the statistical analysis of the obtained measurement values was performed.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In Table 1, L1, L2, L3, L3, L5, L6, L8, L8, L9, L10, L11 and A1 measurement parameters of the pelvis showed that males were larger than females. L4, RA2, and LA2 measurement parameters showed that females were larger than males. L1, L2, and L9 measurement points were statistically significant (P < 0.05).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The results of this study can be taken as a reference in the evaluation of CT images of this species and can be used in various obstetric and gynecological diseases and in studies in the field of zooarchaeology and forensic sciences. In addition, 3D-models obtained using cross-sectional imaging devices can be helpful in the education of the anatomy of this species.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152692"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144321285","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-06-18DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152693
Seong-Kyu Choi , Jin Seo Park , Hongtae Kim , Joe Iwanaga , R. Shane Tubbs , Mi-Sun Hur
Background
The iliopatellar band (IPB) is an anterior extension of the iliotibial tract (ITT) that has been described as contributing to lateral knee stability. This study aimed to investigate the anatomical features of the IPB, focusing on its branching pattern from the ITT, the extent of patellar coverage, and its attachment.
Methods
We examined 64 specimens among 39 embalmed adult South Korean cadavers through dissection, microcomputed tomography, and sectioned images.
Results
The IPB consistently covered the patella and the patellar tendon but to different extents. Micro-CT revealed the division of the IPB into external and internal layers, each possibly having specific functions in force distribution and knee stability. The lateral patellofemoral ligament joined the internal layer or continuously attached to the lateral border of the patella, which possibly may assist in maintaining patellar alignment.
Conclusions
These anatomical insights into the layered configuration and attachments of the IPB may support a better understanding of knee biomechanics and surgical approaches, particularly in the context of ITT tightness and lateral patellar tracking.
{"title":"Anatomical analysis of dual iliopatellar band layers: Implication for knee joint stability","authors":"Seong-Kyu Choi , Jin Seo Park , Hongtae Kim , Joe Iwanaga , R. Shane Tubbs , Mi-Sun Hur","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152693","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152693","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The iliopatellar band (IPB) is an anterior extension of the iliotibial tract (ITT) that has been described as contributing to lateral knee stability. This study aimed to investigate the anatomical features of the IPB, focusing on its branching pattern from the ITT, the extent of patellar coverage, and its attachment.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We examined 64 specimens among 39 embalmed adult South Korean cadavers through dissection, microcomputed tomography, and sectioned images.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The IPB consistently covered the patella and the patellar tendon but to different extents. Micro-CT revealed the division of the IPB into external and internal layers, each possibly having specific functions in force distribution and knee stability. The lateral patellofemoral ligament joined the internal layer or continuously attached to the lateral border of the patella, which possibly may assist in maintaining patellar alignment.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These anatomical insights into the layered configuration and attachments of the IPB may support a better understanding of knee biomechanics and surgical approaches, particularly in the context of ITT tightness and lateral patellar tracking.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152693"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144337257","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-06-16DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152691
Łukasz Olewnik , Ingrid C. Landfald , Aleksandra Kajkowska-Szabert , George Triantafyllou , Maria Piagkou
Introduction
The soleus muscle, a deep postural component of the triceps surae complex, plays a fundamental role in human bipedal locomotion and venous return. Despite its clinical and functional importance, it remains underrepresented in comparative anatomical literature. Morphological and functional variations across species reveal crucial insights into its evolutionary and biomedical relevance.
Aim
This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on the interspecies morphological variability of the soleus muscle, emphasizing its developmental origins, adaptive transformations, clinical significance, and translational potential.
Methods
A comprehensive literature review was conducted, integrating findings from anatomical dissections, histological analyses, embryological studies, imaging data, and evolutionary biology. Representative mammalian species were compared, including humans, primates, cursorial quadrupeds, and arboreal mammals.
Results
The soleus exhibits extensive variation in morphology, fiber-type composition, and functional integration across taxa. In humans, it is hypertrophied and slow-twitch dominant, supporting upright posture and endurance gait. In contrast, the muscle is reduced or absent in cursorial species such as horses. In arboreal mammals, it retains postural function despite its small size. These differences are shaped by embryonic development, phylogenetic lineage, and biomechanical demands.
Conclusion
The soleus muscle is an evolutionarily labile but biomechanically essential structure. Its comparative anatomy provides a unique model for understanding musculoskeletal adaptation, pathology, surgical application, and bioinspired design. Future research should integrate comparative, clinical, and technological approaches to fully exploit its potential.
{"title":"The soleus muscle in comparative anatomy: Morphological variation and functional adaptation across mammals, with clinical insights","authors":"Łukasz Olewnik , Ingrid C. Landfald , Aleksandra Kajkowska-Szabert , George Triantafyllou , Maria Piagkou","doi":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152691","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.aanat.2025.152691","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Introduction</h3><div>The soleus muscle, a deep postural component of the triceps surae complex, plays a fundamental role in human bipedal locomotion and venous return. Despite its clinical and functional importance, it remains underrepresented in comparative anatomical literature. Morphological and functional variations across species reveal crucial insights into its evolutionary and biomedical relevance.</div></div><div><h3>Aim</h3><div>This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on the interspecies morphological variability of the soleus muscle, emphasizing its developmental origins, adaptive transformations, clinical significance, and translational potential.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A comprehensive literature review was conducted, integrating findings from anatomical dissections, histological analyses, embryological studies, imaging data, and evolutionary biology. Representative mammalian species were compared, including humans, primates, cursorial quadrupeds, and arboreal mammals.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The soleus exhibits extensive variation in morphology, fiber-type composition, and functional integration across taxa. In humans, it is hypertrophied and slow-twitch dominant, supporting upright posture and endurance gait. In contrast, the muscle is reduced or absent in cursorial species such as horses. In arboreal mammals, it retains postural function despite its small size. These differences are shaped by embryonic development, phylogenetic lineage, and biomechanical demands.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The soleus muscle is an evolutionarily labile but biomechanically essential structure. Its comparative anatomy provides a unique model for understanding musculoskeletal adaptation, pathology, surgical application, and bioinspired design. Future research should integrate comparative, clinical, and technological approaches to fully exploit its potential.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50974,"journal":{"name":"Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger","volume":"261 ","pages":"Article 152691"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144308000","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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