Coastal Engineering最新文献

{"title":"A multi-tiered Bayesian network coastal compound flood analysis framework","authors":"Ziyue Liu ,&nbsp;Meredith L. Carr ,&nbsp;Norberto C. Nadal-Caraballo ,&nbsp;Luke A. Aucoin ,&nbsp;Madison C. Yawn ,&nbsp;Michelle T. Bensi","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104895","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104895","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Coastal compound floods (CCFs) are triggered by the interaction of multiple coastal and inland mechanisms, such as storm surges, storm rainfall, tides, and river flow. These events can bring significant damage to communities, and there is an increasing demand for accurate and efficient probabilistic analyses of CCFs to support risk assessments and decision-making. In this study, a multi-tiered Bayesian network (BN) CCF analysis framework is established. In this framework, conceptual designs of multiple tiers of BN models with varying complexities are developed for application with varying levels of data availability and resources. A case study is conducted in New Orleans, LA, with three tiers of BN models constructed to demonstrate this framework. In the Tier-1 BN model, storm surges and river flow are incorporated based on hydrodynamic simulations. A seasonality node is used to capture the dependence between concurrent river flow and tropical cyclone (TC) parameters. In the Tier-2 BN model, joint distribution models of TC parameters are built for separate TC intensity categories. TC-induced rainfall is modeled as input to hydraulic simulations. In the Tier-3 BN model, potential variations of meteorological conditions are incorporated by quantifying their effects on TC activity and coastal water level. Flood antecedent conditions are also incorporated to more completely represent the conditions contributing to flood severity. In this case study, a series of joint distribution, numerical, machine learning, and experimental models are used to compute conditional probability tables needed for the BNs. A series of probabilistic analyses is performed based on these BN models, including CCF hazard curve construction and CCF deaggregation. The results of the analysis demonstrate the promise of this framework in performing CCF hazard analysis under varying levels of resource availability and project needs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104895"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145466893","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Depth-Semi-Averaged model: Benchmarking and applications to 2D and 3D problems","authors":"M. Antuono ,&nbsp;A. Lucarelli ,&nbsp;G. Colicchio ,&nbsp;M. Brocchini","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104893","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104893","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The present work provides a number of applications of the Depth-Semi-Averaged model described in Antuono et al. (2022) for different wave conditions and geometries. These include analytical test cases, experimental benchmarks in 2D and 3D frameworks, and simulations of wave dynamics at a real coastal site. Breaking and non-breaking waves are considered, depending on the specific problem under investigation. The aim of the work is to provide an overview of the model potentialities and limits of application and to highlight its similarities and differences in comparison to existing non-hydrostatic schemes. More specifically, the model accurately captures wave propagation phenomena, including refraction and dispersion in non-breaking cases, and demonstrates satisfactory performance in reproducing wave decay caused by turbulence during breaking.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104893"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145326006","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hydrodynamic performance of nested dual-chamber OWC breakwaters for enhanced power stability and wave attenuation","authors":"Chen Peng ,&nbsp;Dezhi Ning ,&nbsp;Feng Zhou","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104896","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104896","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Coastal communities face the challenge of mitigating wave-induced hazards while promoting the utilization of renewable wave energy for sustainable development. This study proposes a novel Nested Dual-chamber Oscillating Water Column (ND-OWC) breakwater, designed to enhance power stability while maintaining effective wave attenuation for sustainable coastal defense. The structure integrates a bottom-mounted leeward inlet OWC as the inner chamber and a suspended semi-annular OWC as the outer chamber, forming modular units that are arranged perpendicular to the wave propagation direction to function as a multifunctional breakwater. A comprehensive Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) study was conducted to evaluate the hydrodynamic performance of the ND-OWC at both unit and array scales. Results indicate that in the ND-OWC unit, the inner chamber enhances oscillations in the outer chamber, leading to a synergistic increase in energy capture by up to 48.25 %. Moreover, the staggered power contributions from the two chambers reduce power fluctuation by up to 75.61 %, supporting stable power output. Units within the array retain energy capture performance comparable to that of a single unit, while the array configuration ensures effective wave attenuation, with transmission coefficients below 0.60 for 50 % of tested cases. Tightly spaced arrays offer superior wave attenuation but exhibit reduced power stability. Compared with other bottom-mounted OWC array configurations, the present design provides mid-range energy capture while consistently achieving superior wave attenuation and power stability. These findings demonstrate the potential of the ND-OWC system as a viable solution for sustainable coastal protection and renewable energy utilization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104896"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145364652","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effectiveness of restored mangrove wetlands in damping waves","authors":"Zongyao Chen ,&nbsp;Wen Wei ,&nbsp;Xiufang Qiu ,&nbsp;Yulu Yang ,&nbsp;Heng Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104894","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104894","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>There has been a global attention on the feasibility and embodiment of integrating the mangrove wetlands into coastal defense. However, little evidence is related to the restored mangroves (with mangrove trees artificially planted), which is increasingly important under ongoing wetland restoration worldwide. Here, wave propagation across a restored <em>Kandelia obovata</em> mangrove wetland on the Hailing Island, Guangdong Province, China, was observed to examine the wave damping effectiveness of the restored mangroves and their potential in coastal defense. The results showed that waves were attenuated by 26 % as they passed through the studied mangrove wetland. The wave attenuation rate of the bare flat was inversely proportional to water depth, and that of the mangrove forest was linked to its submerged state, peaking when the canopy was partially submerged. The restored mangrove attenuated waves more effectively than the bare flat, and showed reliable wave damping ability even in comparisons with natural marsh and mangrove vegetations. This evidence supports the feasibility of utilizing the restored mangroves in nature-based coastal defense. Furthermore, an idealized model was established to examine how the width of the restored mangrove impacts the gross wave attenuation. It is found that wave height reduction increases under a larger restored mangrove width, while the increase is nonlinear. We then proposed an optimal mangrove width proportion of 15 % for the studied wetland, under which the mangrove wetland showed a reliable gross wave height reduction together with a relatively large efficiency. These findings provide important insights into mangrove-induced wave attenuation and its implications for nature-based coastal defense worldwide.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104894"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145326004","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A 45-year high-resolution unstructured wave hindcast for the Australian coast: Validation and climatological insights","authors":"Xianghui Dong ,&nbsp;Qingxiang Liu ,&nbsp;Stefan Zieger ,&nbsp;Ian R. Young ,&nbsp;Rui Li ,&nbsp;Alberto Meucci ,&nbsp;Jian Sun ,&nbsp;Kejian Wu ,&nbsp;Alexander V. Babanin","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104892","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104892","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents a 45-year (1979–2023) high-resolution wave hindcast for the entire Australian coast, conducted using WAVEWATCH III on an unstructured mesh with a resolution ranging from 1 to 15 km. Incorporating the observation-based source term package (i.e., ST6) and the subgrid-scale reef parameterization, the model performs well in simulating widely-used bulk wave parameters. The simulated significant wave height <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>H</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> achieves a correlation greater than 0.96 and exhibits only a centimeter-scale bias when compared to both altimeter and buoy observations. The use of BARRAv2 winds provides a clear advantage under extreme conditions, with negligible underestimation below the 99.9th percentile of <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>H</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>. The model performs particularly well in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) region, where the bathymetry is complicated and could not be resolved well by typical km-scale wave models. Unlike previously published hindcasts that excessively overestimated wave energy in the GBR, our results show only a marginal <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>H</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> bias of approximately −0.05 m, against the shallow water buoys in this specific region. This better performance can be attributed to the subgrid-scale reef parameterization adopted. Long-term validation results demonstrate the robustness of the model framework, with the hindcast showing good temporal homogeneity and reliability. Building upon these results, this study reveals statistically significant increasing trends in wave heights along most of the Australian coast, with particularly pronounced upward trends in extreme wave heights (90th, 95th, and 99th percentiles) in the GBR. Furthermore, the GBR <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>H</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> trends based on our hindcast are much stronger than those estimated from previous hindcasts, and this new finding requires further investigation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104892"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145326005","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The 3rd International Workshop on swash-zone processes","authors":"Alexandra E. Schueller ,&nbsp;Alec Torres-Freyermuth ,&nbsp;Jack A. Puleo","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104891","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104891","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The 3rd International Workshop on Swash-Zone Processes, held in Rome, Italy in September 2024, brought together researchers to discuss the current challenges in swash-zone research. Through review presentations and a structured method, participants identified knowledge gaps and proposed ideas to address those gaps. Areas discussed included: hydrodynamics, runup, sediment transport, morphodynamics, infiltration, and the application of remote sensing and numerical modeling for swash-zone research. The workshop emphasized the need for better integration of spatially extensive data (e.g., from drones and lidar) with traditional methods, and highlighted the importance of collaboration and standardized data sharing. Additionally, discussions focused on improving numerical models of sediment dynamics and understanding of 3D hydrodynamic/morphodynamic processes. This editorial outlines the key knowledge gaps identified and the strategies proposed to address them, offering suggestions for future swash-zone processes research.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"205 ","pages":"Article 104891"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145797680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experiments and large eddy simulations of oscillatory flow over vortex ripples at high Reynolds number","authors":"Weikai Tan ,&nbsp;Jing Yuan ,&nbsp;Deping Cao ,&nbsp;Asim Önder","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104881","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104881","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Long-crested sand ripples are ubiquitous seabed features in shallow coastal environments, characterized by the alternating generation of spanwise coherent vortices (SCVs) on either side of ripple crests. While previous studies have elucidated SCV dynamics at moderate Reynolds numbers (<span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>≤</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>4</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span>), a range that is common at many beaches and can persist for long wave periods. Nonetheless, their applicability to higher Reynolds number conditions (<span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>∼</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>5</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span>) remains uncertain. This investigation combines wall-modeled large eddy simulations (WMLES) and oscillating water tunnel experiments to examine SCV formation at high Reynolds numbers (<span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>∼</mo><mi>O</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>5</mn></mrow></msup><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span>). The WMLES approach employs a logarithmic wall model for rough surfaces, achieving accurate SCV representation with computational efficiency. Experimental validation demonstrates good agreement in both phase-averaged flow fields and turbulence statistics, confirming the model’s fidelity. Key findings reveal a Reynolds number dependence analogous to the drag crisis phenomenon: SCV intensity diminishes significantly for smooth ripples at <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>O</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>5</mn></mrow></msup><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span>, while surface roughness preserves vortex coherence. Our analysis of numerical results uncovers a positive feedback mechanism governing SCV development, where the residual SCV from the preceding half-cycle promotes early flow separation at ripple crests, facilitating vorticity accumulation and subsequent SCV formation. Analysis of the initial-cycle simulation (starting from a quiescent initial condition) shows that lee-side boundary layer must separate intrinsically during the deceleration phases of the first half-cycle to initiate this positive feedback loop. Both low Reynolds numbers and surface roughness can contribute to this first-half-cycle separation by increasing momentum deficit in the lee-side boundary layer.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104881"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145269839","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study of bimodal spectral wave-induced dynamic responses in a silty seabed","authors":"Linlong Tong ,&nbsp;Zhen Huang ,&nbsp;Jisheng Zhang ,&nbsp;Ning Chen ,&nbsp;Dong-Sheng Jeng ,&nbsp;Shulin Zhao ,&nbsp;Xueyan Li","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104890","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104890","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the dynamic responses of silty seabeds to bimodal spectral wave loading, focusing on the impact of these waves on soil dynamics and liquefaction behavior. A series of laboratory experiments were conducted in a wave flume, simulating single-peaked wind waves, single-peaked swell waves, and bimodal spectral waves, which combine high-frequency wind waves and low-frequency swell waves. The results show that the pore pressures induced by bimodal spectral waves builds up over time, leading to a reduction in effective stress and shear strength. The buildup of pore pressures can cause residual liquefaction within a silty seabed, and the depth of liquefaction increases with wave height. When liquefaction occurs, the wave energy dissipates rapidly. The findings indicate that bimodal spectral waves induce deeper and more rapid liquefaction compared to single-peaked waves, with liquefaction progressing from the surface downward. Soil motion was analyzed using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), revealing complex flow patterns within the liquefied layers. Under single-peaked spectral wave conditions, shear flow was observed in the liquefied layer. However, under bimodal spectral wave conditions, both shear and plug flows were observed, with plug flow forming near the surface of the liquefied layer and shear flow occurring between the plug flow and the non-liquefied layer during the reversal phase of acceleration. Additionally, the soil particle velocity spectra exhibited multi-peak characteristics due to the nonlinear interactions of stress waves within the seabed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104890"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145269835","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring a conservative staggered scheme for Boussinesq-type equations: Insights into numerical diffusion, dispersion, and wave-breaking","authors":"Fatima-Zahra Mihami ,&nbsp;Volker Roeber","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104880","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104880","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate and efficient modeling of coastal wave transformation, particularly under wave-breaking conditions, remains a major challenge for Boussinesq-type models. To address this, we introduce and validate a conservative staggered-grid scheme to discretize a set of weakly nonlinear Boussinesq-type equations. The presented approach revisits the staggered finite-difference strategy by ensuring a momentum-conserving solution designed to enhance numerical stability and improve shock-capturing properties. The scheme’s performance is assessed through a series of numerical tests involving monochromatic and spectral linear wave propagation. These tests demonstrate that the conservative staggered scheme is much less sensitive to grid resolution, resulting in approximately one order of magnitude lower numerical diffusion in contrast to the well-established HLLC scheme, while maintaining comparable dispersive accuracy despite using a lower-order spatial reconstruction. Additionally, the scheme introduces a slight negative phase error that compensates for the positive dispersion error inherent in the underlying equations, resulting in improved overall phase accuracy relative to the HLLC scheme. Beyond linear wave propagation, the numerical approach is validated against standard benchmark tests with solitary and spectral breaking waves. In these highly non-linear cases, coupling the conservative staggered scheme with a turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)-based eddy viscosity model yields localized and physically consistent dissipation while preserving the dispersive characteristics of the solution. Compared to conventional hybrid breaking approaches, the TKE-based closure provides enhanced stability, reduced grid sensitivity, and a more accurate representation of energy dissipation during wave breaking. These results underscore the potential of the conservative staggered scheme as an efficient and robust framework for computing complex coastal and nearshore wave processes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"204 ","pages":"Article 104880"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145222984","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Turbulent field beneath monochromatic waves subjected to varying wind conditions","authors":"Fabio Addona,&nbsp;Luca Chiapponi","doi":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104879","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.coastaleng.2025.104879","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wind-wave interaction affects momentum, energy, and chemicals transfer at the air–water interface. In this study, we report on the turbulent flow field beneath laboratory monochromatic waves subjected to different wind speeds and direction (following or opposing). The flow field is decomposed into three main components: a mean, a swell-induced, and a fluctuating term, the latter including the effects of wind-induced ripples and turbulence. After a brief survey on the mean and wave-induced fields, we focus our attention on the fluctuating-turbulence field. Our results show that the turbulent stresses increase with increasing water friction, and that the condition of wind opposing the swell results in enhanced momentum transfer at deeper water levels. The distribution of fluctuating kinetic energy (TKE) along the swell phase indicates a maximum at the trough, which was addressed to the kinematics of the free surface by previous researchers. Furthermore, we investigate all the terms in the 2D energy equations that contribute to the TKE production by assuming that waves propagate with a rigid translation. A close look to the TKE budget suggests positive production of TKE on the leeside before the trough for all wind conditions, with destruction of TKE windwards for wind following the swell, possibly due to a sheltering effect. For opposing wind, however, positive production is almost ubiquitous along the swell phase, and this would justify larger mean TKE production for that particular condition. These findings are discussed to address possible causes; the phase-dependent behavior of TKE budgets are attributed to the combined action of swell-induced acceleration, wind shear on the crest, the stochastic phase offsets of the wind waves, and microscale breaking. A quadrant analysis highlights the main direction of momentum transfer and helps the individuation of the bursts, i.e., of strong events that support high momentum transfer. As expected, the net momentum transfer due to the fluctuating components is from air to water, with conditional averages (i.e., the quadrant map of the fluctuating velocities) confirming that finding. Finally, the analysis of the fluctuating principal stresses tensor reports that anisotropy increases for increasing water friction, although the system tends to isotropic conditions immediately below the air–water interface. For wind following the swell, the principal axes approaches the free surface with an angle <span><math><mrow><mo>−</mo><mi>π</mi><mo>/</mo><mn>4</mn></mrow></math></span>, which is typical when a shear current is dominant near the surface. Important implications of these findings include the availability of further data to improve wave forecasting and prediction of swell and wind conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50996,"journal":{"name":"Coastal Engineering","volume":"203 ","pages":"Article 104879"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145158366","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}