Evolution and Human Behavior最新文献_第7页

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2026-01-01

引用次数: 0

Epstein Barr virus, infectious mononucleosis and associated diseases as contributors to the costs of intimate kissing 爱泼斯坦巴尔病毒，传染性单核细胞增多症和相关疾病是亲密接吻成本的贡献者

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-31 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106817

Paul W. Ewald

When evaluating whether kissing is an evolutionary adaptation, fitness costs and benefits need to be considered. Any disease transmitted by kissing needs to be considered on the cost side. Infectious mononucleosis is the prototypical disease transmitted by intimate kissing, so much so that it is commonly known as the kissing disease. When the Epstein Barr virus was first accepted as the primary cause of infectious mononucleosis in 1968, it was generally considered a relatively benign pathogen in affluent populations. Infectious mononucleosis caused fatigue but was self limited and EBV usually caused asymptomatic infection. If that were the whole story then EBV would impose a relatively small fitness cost when spread by intimate kissing. Over the past half-century, however, EBV has been associated with severe diseases such as cancers, multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus, which would impose higher fitness costs that would offset the mating advantages of kissing, and make adaptive explanations based on mating advantages less tenable. This paper evaluates whether the severe consequences of EBV infection extend back deeply into human evolution or arose more recently, reflecting a mismatch between modern and ancestral conditions. Comparative evidence indicates that infectious mononucleosis has been largely a recent consequence of EBV infection resulting from increased hygienic activites that reduce the probability of infection prior to adolescence. Infections during and after adolescence are sufficiently severe to generate symptomatic infection recognized as infectious mononucleosis, which in turn is associated with even more severe chronic diseases, such as breast cancer, multiple sclerosis, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. The recency of these associations indicates that this collection of severe diseases would not have imposed a fitness cost on intimate kissing. The flip side of this conclusion is that intimate kissing is now more unsafe than it used to be during our evolutionary history, and humans are left without innate avoidance mechanisms that would be more consistent with the present costs of intimate kissing.

在评估接吻是否是一种进化适应时，需要考虑到健康的成本和收益。任何通过接吻传播的疾病都需要从成本方面考虑。传染性单核细胞增多症是一种典型的由亲密接吻传播的疾病，因此俗称“接吻病”。当爱泼斯坦巴尔病毒在1968年首次被认为是传染性单核细胞增多症的主要原因时，它通常被认为是富裕人群中相对良性的病原体。传染性单核细胞增多症引起疲劳，但有自限性，EBV通常引起无症状感染。如果这就是整个故事，那么EBV通过亲密接吻传播时，会带来相对较小的适应成本。然而，在过去的半个世纪里，EBV与癌症、多发性硬化症和系统性红斑狼疮等严重疾病有关，这些疾病会施加更高的适应成本，从而抵消接吻的交配优势，并使基于交配优势的适应性解释变得不那么站不住脚。本文评估了EBV感染的严重后果是否可以追溯到人类进化的深处，或者是最近才出现的，这反映了现代和祖先条件之间的不匹配。比较证据表明，传染性单核细胞增多症在很大程度上是eb病毒感染的近期后果，这是由于青少年之前卫生活动的增加减少了感染的可能性。青春期及其后的感染严重到足以产生被认为是传染性单核细胞增多症的症状性感染，这反过来又与更严重的慢性疾病有关，如乳腺癌、多发性硬化症和霍奇金淋巴瘤。最近出现的这些关联表明，这些严重疾病的集合不会给亲密接吻带来健康成本。这个结论的另一面是，在我们的进化史上，亲密接吻现在比以前更不安全，人类没有先天的避免机制，这将与亲密接吻的当前成本更一致。

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引用次数: 0

Resource allocation and romantic jealousy: An experimental test of sex differences using economic games 资源分配与浪漫嫉妒：利用经济博弈对性别差异的实验检验

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-29 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106816

Ana María Fernández , María Teresa Barbato , Michele Dufey , Belén Zavalla , María Luíza Rodrigues Sampaio de Souza

Romantic jealousy is theorized to have evolved as an adaptive mechanism triggered by sex-specific threats to reproductive fitness. In men, sexual infidelity poses risks of paternal uncertainty, whereas in women, emotional infidelity threatens resource diversion. To test evolutionary predictions about sex differences in jealousy responses, the present study employed an improved economic game paradigm with heterosexual couples. Specifically, the modified dictator game was refined to explicitly state that the participant's partner would not only allocate resources to a newly introduced intrasexual rival but also receive resources that the partner would directly accept from this rival, thereby clarifying the intentionality and directionality of the exchange. This adjustment enhances ecological validity by modeling both partner-initiated and rival-initiated threats in a more realistic mate-poaching context. Seventy-nine heterosexual couples participated in a laboratory setting. Controlling for individual differences such as attachment anxiety and digital jealousy, it was hypothesized that women would experience greater jealousy than men when their partner allocated resources to a rival, while men would experience greater jealousy than women when their partner received resources from a rival to the detriment of the rival's partner. Results partially supported these hypotheses: resource allocation to a rival triggered greater jealousy responses in all participants, particularly among women, consistent with emotional infidelity models, whereas the reception condition yielded weaker and less differentiated effects. These findings suggest that allocation-based paradigms effectively model generalized romantic jealousy in partner–rival contexts involving resource exchange but may have limited sensitivity for detecting mate-poaching-related jealousy. More broadly, the study highlights the promise and constraints of economic games for experimentally investigating sex-specific adaptations in emotional responses.

从理论上讲，浪漫嫉妒是一种进化的适应机制，是由对生殖健康的性别特异性威胁引发的。在男性中，性不忠会带来父亲不确定性的风险，而在女性中，情感不忠会威胁到资源的转移。为了测试嫉妒反应中性别差异的进化预测，本研究采用了一种改进的异性恋夫妇经济博弈范式。具体来说，修改后的独裁者博弈被明确地指出，参与者的伙伴不仅会将资源分配给新引入的异性竞争对手，而且还会从这个竞争对手那里直接接受资源，从而澄清了交换的意向性和方向性。这种调整通过在更现实的配偶偷猎背景下模拟伴侣发起和对手发起的威胁来增强生态有效性。79对异性恋夫妇参与了实验。在控制了依恋焦虑和数字嫉妒等个体差异的情况下，研究人员假设，当女性的伴侣将资源分配给竞争对手时，女性会比男性更嫉妒；而当男性的伴侣从竞争对手那里获得资源，损害竞争对手的伴侣时，男性会比女性更嫉妒。结果部分支持了这些假设：资源分配给竞争对手引发了所有参与者更大的嫉妒反应，尤其是女性，这与情感不忠模型一致，而接受条件产生的影响更弱，差异更小。这些发现表明，基于分配的范式在涉及资源交换的伴侣-竞争情境中有效地模拟了广义浪漫嫉妒，但在检测与配偶偷猎相关的嫉妒时可能灵敏度有限。更广泛地说，这项研究强调了经济博弈在实验研究情绪反应中性别特异性适应方面的前景和局限性。

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引用次数: 0

Mortality perceptions in the context of the Trivers-Willard hypothesis 特里弗斯-威拉德假说背景下的死亡率认知

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106812

Joseph G. Guerriero , Mary K. Shenk , Robert F. Lynch , Madeleine Zoeller , Lisa S. McAllister , Nurul Alam

The Trivers-Willard hypothesis (TWH) posits that parents who can easily provide for their children are expected to have more sons and invest more in sons while parents who have difficulty providing for their children are expected to have and invest more in daughters. In the present study, we test plausible proxies of parental condition largely ignored by prior investigations: worry about family member mortality and perceptions of community mortality risk. We administered an in-person survey to 302 married women living in Matlab, Bangladesh, and captured both mortality and financial-related proxies of parental condition and three parental bias variables (hypothetical investment in sons vs. daughters, preferences for sons vs. daughters, and the sex ratio of respondents' children). Using Bayesian regression, we found only two of nine of our a-priori predictions were supported: there is a 61 % probability that perceptions of community mortality risk are positively associated with preferring daughters over sons and a 66 % probability that financial standing is positively associated with preferring more sons than daughters. Other tests did not reveal clear effects or revealed an effect opposite to what was expected. However, in line with our TWH-inspired hypotheses, exploratory tests revealed that early life exposure to mortality is positively associated with having more daughters than sons and early life financial standing is positively associated with having more sons than daughters. We conclude that tests of the TWH remain sensitive to how parental condition and bias are operationalized, and that assessments of parental condition earlier in life may be particularly predictive of parental bias patterns in accordance with the Trivers-Willard hypothesis.

特里弗斯-威拉德假说（TWH）认为，能够轻松抚养孩子的父母被期望生更多的儿子，并在儿子上投入更多，而难以抚养孩子的父母被期望生更多的女儿，并在女儿上投入更多。在目前的研究中，我们测试了父母状况的可信代理，这些代理在很大程度上被先前的调查所忽视：对家庭成员死亡的担忧和对社区死亡风险的看法。我们对居住在孟加拉国Matlab的302名已婚妇女进行了亲自调查，并捕获了父母状况的死亡率和经济相关代理以及三个父母偏见变量（假设对儿子和女儿的投资，对儿子和女儿的偏好，以及受访者子女的性别比例）。使用贝叶斯回归，我们发现我们的九个先验预测中只有两个得到支持：对社区死亡风险的看法与重男轻女正相关的概率为61%，经济状况与重男轻女正相关的概率为66%。其他测试没有显示出明显的效果，或者显示出与预期相反的效果。然而，与我们的假设一致，探索性测试显示，早期生活中的死亡率与女儿多于儿子呈正相关，而早期生活中的经济状况与儿子多于女儿呈正相关。我们的结论是，TWH的测试仍然对父母的条件和偏见是如何运作的敏感，并且根据特里弗斯-威拉德假设，早期父母条件的评估可能特别能预测父母的偏见模式。

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引用次数: 0

Exploring nose-to-nose contact in mammals 探索哺乳动物的鼻对鼻接触

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106809

Sophie Lund Rasmussen

Only a few species perform lip kissing. However, nose-to-nose contact is a common yet less explored behaviour observed across various animal taxa. This review investigates the multifaceted suggested roles and functions of nose-to-nose contact by including existing literature describing this behaviour in combination with field observations from mammal researchers. Documentation of this behaviour in mammalian species with varying social strategies ranging from solitary to eusocial attest how these nose-to-nose interactions serve distinct, but apparently very diverse purposes. Insights from ethology and evolutionary biology suggest different adaptive advantages of nose-to-nose contact, such as enhanced social cohesion and increased reproductive success, although in some cases caused by reproductive suppression of conspecifics through nose-to-nose contact.

只有少数物种会接吻。然而，鼻子对鼻子的接触是一种常见的行为，但在各种动物类群中观察到的研究较少。本文通过结合哺乳动物研究人员的实地观察，结合现有文献对鼻对鼻接触行为的描述，调查了多方面的建议角色和功能。从独居到群居的不同社会策略的哺乳动物物种的这种行为的记录证明了这些鼻子对鼻子的互动是如何服务于不同的，但显然是非常多样化的目的。行为学和进化生物学的见解表明，鼻子对鼻子接触具有不同的适应优势，例如增强社会凝聚力和提高繁殖成功率，尽管在某些情况下，鼻子对鼻子接触会抑制同种动物的繁殖。

引用次数: 0

Gender differences in social networks under subsistence changes 生存变化下社会网络的性别差异

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106814

Yaming Huang , Gabriel Šaffa , Shiting Zhang , Pengpeng Bai , Liqiong Zhou , Gui He , Ruth Mace , Juan Du

Sexual selection theory suggests that gendered social strategies are universal outcomes of reproductive competition, yet recent cross-cultural studies show that these strategies are shaped by socio-ecological factors although they remain insufficiently examined. In particular, little is known about how gendered strategies adapt during periods of rapid social and economic changes. To this end, we examine gender differences in scale and composition of ego-networks, guided by two main hypotheses: that gender roles are shaped by (i) market participation, and (ii) post-marital residence pattern. Using data from 1169 married women and men across 14 Tibetan villages undergoing economic and kinship-system transitions, we applied Bayesian multilevel models to analyse core social relationships. Our findings show that, as men increase their participation in market economies, their networks become more kin-centred – strengthening biological kin ties while loosening friend ties – reflecting an instrumental restructuring of social relationships in response to changing economic roles. In contrast, women's networks remain largely unaffected, likely reflecting the persistence of caregiving responsibilities and strong local embeddedness. Post-marital residence patterns impose comparable trade-offs for both sexes: philopatric individuals prioritise biological kin, while affinal kin can effectively substitute for natal relatives when biological kin become less accessible, forming a balanced, bilateral cooperative network that integrates both kin types. This study underscores that women sustain stable and cohesive social ties across socio-economic transitions, while men adapt their networks more flexibly in response to shifting economic roles.

性选择理论认为，性别社会策略是生殖竞争的普遍结果，然而最近的跨文化研究表明，这些策略是由社会生态因素塑造的，尽管它们仍然没有得到充分的研究。特别是，人们对性别战略如何适应迅速的社会和经济变化时期所知甚少。为此，我们在两个主要假设的指导下，研究了自我网络规模和构成的性别差异：性别角色是由(i)市场参与和（ii）婚后居住模式塑造的。我们的研究结果表明，随着男性越来越多地参与市场经济，他们的网络变得更加以亲属为中心——加强了生物亲属关系，同时放松了朋友关系——反映了社会关系的结构性重构，以应对经济角色的变化。相比之下，女性的人际网络基本上没有受到影响，这可能反映了她们的照顾责任和强烈的地方归属感。婚后居住模式对两性都施加了可比较的权衡：有爱心的个人优先考虑生物亲属，而当生物亲属变得难以获得时，最终亲属可以有效地替代出生亲属，形成一个平衡的双边合作网络，将两种亲属类型整合在一起。这项研究强调，女性在社会经济转型过程中保持稳定和有凝聚力的社会关系，而男性则更灵活地调整其网络，以应对经济角色的转变。

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引用次数: 0

Vulnerability and the computational logic of fear: insights from the horror genre 脆弱性和恐惧的计算逻辑：来自恐怖类型的见解

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106813

Edgar Dubourg , Coltan Scrivner

Fear is a universal feature of storytelling, yet the structural conditions that make fictional threats compelling remain poorly understood. Here, we propose the Protagonist Vulnerability Index (PVI), an evolutionarily grounded computational approach to explain why some narratives evoke stronger fear responses than others. PVI quantifies protagonist vulnerability by assessing the imbalance in formidability between protagonists and antagonists and the risk of attack faced by the protagonist. Across 691 films, higher PVI values predicted classification as horror, the presence of fear-related keywords in non-horror films, and stronger physiological fear responses indexed by heart rate. Linking film preferences to psychological and demographic data from more than 3.5 million individuals on Facebook, we found that preference for high-PVI films was associated with lower agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion, and with higher openness. Openness moderated the negative association between neuroticism and engagement with fear-related content, indicating that curiosity can counteract threat avoidance in anxious individuals. These findings clarify the structural and psychological conditions that activate evolved threat-management systems. The results show how horror operates as a narrative simulation of extreme formidability asymmetry, and provide a framework for predicting, and potentially engineering, fear in fiction.

恐惧是讲故事的普遍特征，但人们对虚构威胁引人注目的结构条件却知之甚少。在这里，我们提出了主角脆弱性指数（PVI），这是一种基于进化的计算方法，可以解释为什么有些故事比其他故事更能引起恐惧反应。PVI通过评估主角和对手之间的强大性不平衡以及主角面临的攻击风险来量化主角的脆弱性。在691部电影中，更高的PVI值预示着恐怖片的分类，非恐怖片中与恐惧相关的关键词的存在，以及更强的由心率索引的生理恐惧反应。我们将电影偏好与Facebook上350多万人的心理和人口统计数据联系起来，发现对高pvi电影的偏好与较低的亲和性、严谨性和外向性以及较高的开放性有关。开放性调节了神经质和参与恐惧相关内容之间的负相关关系，表明好奇心可以抵消焦虑个体的威胁回避。这些发现阐明了激活进化的威胁管理系统的结构和心理条件。研究结果表明，恐怖是如何作为一种极端恐惧不对称的叙事模拟来运作的，并为预测和潜在地设计小说中的恐惧提供了一个框架。

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引用次数: 0

Self-assessment biases and motivations: An error management approach 自我评估偏差与动机：一种错误管理方法

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106808

Nina N. Rodriguez , Aaron W. Lukaszewski , Patrick K. Durkee

Research into self-assessment biases find that each type of bias predicts specific social benefits and social costs. However, little research has attempted to explain why people vary in their self-assessment biases. In this study, we applied error management logic to develop hypotheses about the coordination of self-assessment biases in socially valued traits with personality strategies. For individuals pursuing a strategy organized around acquiring status and resources, it is less costly to err on the side of over-estimation. For individuals motivated by the avoidance of social threats, under-estimation is the less costly error. To test these ideas, we used three datasets (N = 721) containing measures of subjects’ (1) biases in self-assessment of physical strength and attractiveness (using third-party/objective measures and self-assessments), and (2) variation in behavioral strategies. Consistent with hypotheses, over-estimation predicted behavioral strategies organized around status acquisition (e.g., high Extraversion, high Personal Sense of Power, low Honesty-Humility). Additionally, behavioral strategies associated with threat avoidance (e.g., high Fearfulness) tended to show a bias toward under-estimation. These findings suggest that self-evaluative biases are functionally coordinated, per error management logic, with strategic behavioral variation.

对自我评估偏差的研究发现，每种类型的偏差都预示着特定的社会效益和社会成本。然而，很少有研究试图解释为什么人们在自我评估偏见上有所不同。在本研究中，我们运用错误管理逻辑对社会价值特质自我评价偏差与人格策略之间的协调性进行了假设。对于追求以获取地位和资源为目标的战略的个人来说，过高估计的代价更小。对于出于避免社会威胁动机的个人来说，低估是代价较小的错误。为了验证这些观点，我们使用了三个数据集（N = 721），其中包含受试者(1)在体力和吸引力自我评估方面的偏差（使用第三方/客观测量和自我评估），以及(2)行为策略的变化。与假设一致，高估预测了围绕地位获得组织的行为策略（例如，高外向性，高个人权力感，低诚实-谦卑）。此外，与威胁回避相关的行为策略（例如，高恐惧）倾向于低估。这些发现表明，根据错误管理逻辑，自我评价偏差与战略行为变异在功能上是协调一致的。

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引用次数: 0

The attractive personality: Like me, but better 有吸引力的个性：像我，但更好

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-12-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106811

Thomas H. Kleppestø , Mons Bendixen , Hans Fredrik Sunde , Brendan Zietsch , Kaitlyn T. Harper , Håvard Karlsen , Marius Stavang , Nikolai Haahjem Eftedal , Leif Edward Ottesen Kennair

People tend to prefer mates who are similar to themselves, yet also desire partners with specific characteristics. The relative importance of assortative and absolute preferences might differ for big five and political personality. We examined partner preferences at the facet level of the big five framework and compared them with preferences regarding a key political personality trait—social dominance orientation (SDO). We also assessed how average preferences in one sex align with actual average trait levels in the opposite sex. We analyzed correlations and mean differences between self-ratings and ideal partner ratings, and compared average preferences with opposite-sex trait means among 538 Norwegian students, using a survey comprising social dominance orientation (SDO-7) and the IPIP-NEO-60. Both sexes preferred partners similar to themselves on big five traits and SDO, particularly for SDO. Systematic differences also emerged between self-ratings and ideal partner ratings, especially for neuroticism, where both sexes preferred lower levels. We observed mismatches between preferred and actual trait levels—for example, men's average desired agreeableness matched women's average, but women's preferred level exceeded men's actual average. These findings suggest that ideal partner preferences are shaped by one's own traits, especially for political personality, but some traits (e.g., low neuroticism) are broadly preferred across individuals.

人们倾向于选择与自己相似的伴侣，但也希望伴侣具有特定的特征。分类偏好和绝对偏好的相对重要性可能因五大人格和政治人格而异。我们在大五框架的层面上考察了伴侣的偏好，并将其与一个关键的政治人格特征——社会支配取向（SDO）的偏好进行了比较。我们还评估了一个性别的平均偏好与异性的实际平均特征水平是如何一致的。我们分析了自我评分和理想伴侣评分之间的相关性和平均差异，并比较了538名挪威学生的平均偏好和异性特征均值，使用了一项包括社会支配取向（SDO-7）和IPIP-NEO-60的调查。男性和女性都更喜欢在五大特征和SDO方面与自己相似的伴侣，尤其是SDO。自我评分和理想伴侣评分之间也出现了系统性差异，尤其是在神经质方面，男女都喜欢较低的评分。我们观察到偏好和实际特征水平之间的不匹配——例如，男性的平均期望宜人性与女性的平均水平相符，但女性的偏好水平高于男性的实际平均水平。这些发现表明，理想伴侣的偏好是由一个人自己的性格决定的，尤其是政治性格，但有些性格（如低神经质）在个人中普遍受欢迎。

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引用次数: 0

Self-serving intergroup aggression escalates and prevails over parochial cooperation 自私自利的群体间攻击升级并压倒了狭隘的合作

IF 3.2 1区心理学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Evolution and Human Behavior

Pub Date : 2025-11-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106801

Qinyu Xiao , Simon Columbus , Robert Böhm

Anthropological evidence suggests that intergroup conflict in small-scale societies frequently involves opportunistic attacks by small groups of raiders. These incursions are low-risk and often offer immediate benefits to their participants; however, they can also fuel cycles of revenge between groups, exposing raiders’ in-group members to counterattacks. The existing experimental literature on intergroup conflict has mostly assumed that conflict participation is individually costly but benefits the in-group, leaving the aforementioned form of intergroup aggression understudied. In this research, we used an economic game paradigm that affords both self-serving intergroup aggression, which we term “individual exploitation,” and self-sacrificial conflict participation to investigate the prevalence and determinants of the former and compare it with the latter. In two incentivised behavioural experiments with UK online participants (Ns = 647 and 272), we found prevalent and escalating individual exploitation – consistent with small-scale warfare in pre-state societies – but little self-sacrificial and cooperative conflict participation. We also show that intragroup comparisons can drive such escalation, and costly peer punishment is largely ineffective in containing individual exploitation and promoting in-group cooperation. Our results imply that understanding the human psychology of intergroup aggression requires more consideration of individual exploitation.

人类学证据表明，在小规模社会中，群体间的冲突经常涉及小群入侵者的机会主义攻击。这些入侵是低风险的，通常会给参与者带来直接的好处；然而，他们也可以推动群体之间的报复循环，使袭击者的内部成员受到反击。现有的关于群体间冲突的实验文献大多假设冲突参与对个人来说代价高昂，但对群体内的人有利，而对上述形式的群体间攻击研究不足。在这项研究中，我们使用了一种经济博弈范式，该范式既提供了自我服务的群体间侵略（我们称之为“个人剥削”），也提供了自我牺牲的冲突参与，以调查前者的普遍性和决定因素，并将其与后者进行比较。在对英国在线参与者进行的两项激励行为实验中（Ns = 647和272），我们发现普遍存在且不断升级的个人剥削——与前国家社会的小规模战争一致——但很少有自我牺牲和合作冲突参与。我们还表明，群体内比较可以推动这种升级，而代价高昂的同伴惩罚在遏制个人剥削和促进群体内合作方面基本上无效。我们的研究结果表明，理解群体间攻击的人类心理需要更多地考虑个体剥削。

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引用次数: 0