Pub Date : 2025-09-28DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104203
Koen Lotze, Jurgen Rietberg, Marcel ter Brake
We present a method for modelling the thermodynamic behaviour of a cryocooler in the case of intermittent operation of the cooler. Such intermittent operation can, for instance, be applied to prevent cooler interference when cooling ultra-sensitive devices. In this case, the cooler is switched off during actual operation of these devices. Since these devices usually are sensitive to temperature variations, it is important to know the thermal response of the cooler when switching it on and off. Our approach in predicting this response is based on simple modelling of the separate cooler stages, in which the thermal resistance and the heat capacity are considered temperature dependent. In order to determine these dependencies, the cooler is characterized in warm-up experiments where the cold-stage temperatures are recorded as functions of time. In the paper, we present our modelling approach and the method to derive the model parameters from the warm-up experiments. The presented methodology is illustrated by experiments performed with a commercial two-stage cryocooler.
{"title":"An experimental method for modelling the off-state thermodynamics of a cryocooler","authors":"Koen Lotze, Jurgen Rietberg, Marcel ter Brake","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104203","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104203","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We present a method for modelling the thermodynamic behaviour of a cryocooler in the case of intermittent operation of the cooler. Such intermittent operation can, for instance, be applied to prevent cooler interference when cooling ultra-sensitive devices. In this case, the cooler is switched off during actual operation of these devices. Since these devices usually are sensitive to temperature variations, it is important to know the thermal response of the cooler when switching it on and off. Our approach in predicting this response is based on simple <span><math><mrow><mi>RC</mi></mrow></math></span> modelling of the separate cooler stages, in which the thermal resistance <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi></mrow></math></span> and the heat capacity <span><math><mrow><mi>C</mi></mrow></math></span> are considered temperature dependent. In order to determine these dependencies, the cooler is characterized in warm-up experiments where the cold-stage temperatures are recorded as functions of time. In the paper, we present our modelling approach and the method to derive the model parameters from the warm-up experiments. The presented methodology is illustrated by experiments performed with a commercial two-stage cryocooler.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104203"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145263215","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-27DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104207
Yanwei Liang , Yongfeng Qu , Hongbo Xu , Nan Peng , Jean-Michel Ghidaglia , Liqiang Liu , Jiansheng Zuo , Hongmin Liu , Changlei Ke , Kongrong Li
Liquid hydrogen is often the most suitable choice for both storage and transportation in various situations. However, once a leak occurs, liquid hydrogen will rapidly evaporate into gaseous hydrogen, causing significant potential hazards. Therefore, it is crucial to study measures to improve the safety of liquid hydrogen use. This paper proposes a method called “air wall.” A comparison between the traditional bund wall system and the air wall show that the air wall offers more effective protection. Analysis of the airflow speed of the air wall reveals that higher airflow speeds enhance protective effects. By adjusting the activation time of the air wall, it was found that there is no need for continuous operation; activating the air wall before the arrival of hydrogen can also provide effective protection. The size of the air wall was also studied, and it was found that at the same air flow velocity, smaller air walls provide poorer protection. Finally, the impact of various atmospheric wind speeds on the air wall was analyzed, and it was found that the higher wind speed, the greater air wall speed for effective protection. This protective method is expected to be widely implemented in liquid hydrogen storage areas.
{"title":"Numerical simulation of air wall protection performance during liquid hydrogen leakage and analysis of key influencing factors","authors":"Yanwei Liang , Yongfeng Qu , Hongbo Xu , Nan Peng , Jean-Michel Ghidaglia , Liqiang Liu , Jiansheng Zuo , Hongmin Liu , Changlei Ke , Kongrong Li","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104207","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104207","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Liquid hydrogen is often the most suitable choice for both storage and transportation in various situations. However, once a leak occurs, liquid hydrogen will rapidly evaporate into gaseous hydrogen, causing significant potential hazards. Therefore, it is crucial to study measures to improve the safety of liquid hydrogen use. This paper proposes a method called “air wall.” A comparison between the traditional bund wall system and the air wall show that the air wall offers more effective protection. Analysis of the airflow speed of the<!--> <!-->air wall reveals that higher airflow speeds enhance protective effects. By adjusting the activation time of the air wall, it was found that there is no need for continuous operation; activating the air wall before the arrival of hydrogen can also provide effective protection. The size of the air wall was also studied, and it was found that at the same air flow velocity, smaller air walls provide poorer protection. Finally, the impact of various atmospheric wind speeds on the air wall was analyzed, and it was found that the higher wind speed, the greater air wall speed for effective protection. This protective method is expected to be widely implemented in liquid hydrogen storage areas.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104207"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145217901","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-27DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104206
Mira Wehr, Michael J. Wolf, Tabea Arndt
This contribution presents conceptual designs for a hybrid power transfer line (PTL) with liquid hydrogen (LH2) and high temperature superconductors (HTS). The synergetic combination of chemical and electrical energy transfer provides a high overall efficiency and large power density. To avoid critical material compatibility with hydrogen and improve safety aspects, one option is to place the HTS cable within the same cryostat but separated from the LH2 flow by a protective pipe. A key challenge of this indirect cooling is the heat transfer capability from the cable to the hydrogen. To improve the thermal contact, the protective pipe is filled with helium as a contact gas. Evaluating the indirect cooling needs modelling of heat transfer by natural convection, which relies on empirical correlations. In this work, an experiment is designed to validate the correlations at cryogenic temperatures. The presented test set-up is of reduced geometric complexity and experiments are executed with liquid nitrogen (LN2) at 77 K. The measurement series includes different cable sample topologies and the overall results show a good accordance with a chosen empiric description of natural convection in enclosed space. The outcome enables further quantitative investigations of the indirect cooling concept for hybrid PTLs. Preliminary results predict a sufficient thermal coupling between the HTS cable and stagnant helium.
{"title":"Experimental studies on indirect cooling for a hybrid power transfer line (LH2 and HTS)","authors":"Mira Wehr, Michael J. Wolf, Tabea Arndt","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104206","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104206","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This contribution presents conceptual designs for a hybrid power transfer line (PTL) with liquid hydrogen (LH<sub>2</sub>) and high temperature superconductors (HTS). The synergetic combination of chemical and electrical energy transfer provides a high overall efficiency and large power density. To avoid critical material compatibility with hydrogen and improve safety aspects, one option is to place the HTS cable within the same cryostat but separated from the LH<sub>2</sub> flow by a protective pipe. A key challenge of this indirect cooling is the heat transfer capability from the cable to the hydrogen. To improve the thermal contact, the protective pipe is filled with helium as a contact gas. Evaluating the indirect cooling needs modelling of heat transfer by natural convection, which relies on empirical correlations. In this work, an experiment is designed to validate the correlations at cryogenic temperatures. The presented test set-up is of reduced geometric complexity and experiments are executed with liquid nitrogen (LN<sub>2</sub>) at 77 K. The measurement series includes different cable sample topologies and the overall results show a good accordance with a chosen empiric description of natural convection in enclosed space. The outcome enables further quantitative investigations of the indirect cooling concept for hybrid PTLs. Preliminary results predict a sufficient thermal coupling between the HTS cable and stagnant helium.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104206"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145320837","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-26DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104204
Mohammad Kassemi , Sonya Hylton
In future refueling depot and space operations, noncondensable gases (NCG)s may be used as pressurants to extract liquid propellant for tank-to-tank transfer and engine start-up operations. Once it is present in the ullage, the noncondensable gas can affect the interfacial evaporation and condensation processes that control tank self-pressurization and pressure control during subsequent storage. The Zero Boil-Off Tank-Noncondensable (ZBOT-NC) Experiment and its associated computational model development effort are carried out to study these phenomena. In this work, we present a Sharp Interface CFD (SI-CFD) model which is applied to the two-phase and two-component simulant fluid system used in the ZBOT-NC Experiment with Perfluoro-n-Pentane (PnP) as the simulant low-boiling point phase change fluid, and Xenon as the noncondensable gas. The SI-CFD model solves the continuity, momentum, energy, species, and turbulence equations in the vapor and liquid phases while providing very accurate temperature and species gradient calculations at the interface. In developing this model, particular attention was focused on the precise determination of the molar concentrations of the vapor and the noncondensable gas at the interface in order to correctly predict the vapor “Stefan wind” in the ullage, as well as the extent of the accumulation of the noncondensable gas at the phase front. Detailed microgravity and 1g numerical simulations and analyses are presented to show the characteristics of the noncondensable gas induced transport resistance in the ullage, along with the thermocapillary (Marangoni) convection in the liquid and their impact on the interfacial heat and mass transfer during tank self-pressurization and jet mixing pressure control. The results of these simulations indicate that, in 1g, the presence of the noncondensable gas affects pressure control noticeably but its impact on self-pressurization is minimal. However, in microgravity, the noncondensable gas seems to have a noticeable impact during self-pressurization while its effect on jet mixing pressure control is significant and considerably more pronounced than on earth.
{"title":"Sharp interface CFD analysis of noncondensable gas effects on 1g and microgravity tank self-pressurization and pressure control","authors":"Mohammad Kassemi , Sonya Hylton","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104204","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104204","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In future refueling depot and space operations, noncondensable gases (NCG)s may be used as pressurants to extract liquid propellant for tank-to-tank transfer and engine start-up operations. Once it is present in the ullage, the noncondensable gas can affect the interfacial evaporation and condensation processes that control tank self-pressurization and pressure control during subsequent storage. The Zero Boil-Off Tank-Noncondensable (ZBOT-NC) Experiment and its associated computational model development effort are carried out to study these phenomena. In this work, we present a Sharp Interface CFD (SI-CFD) model which is applied to the two-phase and two-component simulant fluid system used in the ZBOT-NC Experiment with Perfluoro-n-Pentane (PnP) as the <em>simulant</em> low-boiling point phase change fluid, and Xenon as the noncondensable gas. The SI-CFD model solves the continuity, momentum, energy, species, and turbulence equations in the vapor and liquid phases while providing very accurate temperature and species gradient calculations at the interface. In developing this model, particular attention was focused on the precise determination of the molar concentrations of the vapor and the noncondensable gas at the interface in order to correctly predict the vapor “Stefan wind” in the ullage, as well as the extent of the accumulation of the noncondensable gas at the phase front. Detailed microgravity and 1g numerical simulations and analyses are presented to show the characteristics of the noncondensable gas induced transport resistance in the ullage, along with the thermocapillary (Marangoni) convection in the liquid and their impact on the interfacial heat and mass transfer during tank self-pressurization and jet mixing pressure control. The results of these simulations indicate that, in 1g, the presence of the noncondensable gas affects pressure control noticeably but its impact on self-pressurization is minimal. However, in microgravity, the noncondensable gas seems to have a noticeable impact during self-pressurization while its effect on jet mixing pressure control is significant and considerably more pronounced than on earth.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104204"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145263213","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-25DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104199
Weronika Głuchowska , Thomas Hanhart , Tomasz Banaszkiewicz , Philippe Benoit , Benoit Curé , Maciej Chorowski , Alexey Dudarev , Anna Kario , Matthias Mentink , Jasper Van Der Werf
Due to helium’s limited accessibility and non-renewable nature, superconducting systems need more sustainable alternatives to cryogenic plants, which feature elevated helium losses. Cryogenic systems based on commercially available cryocoolers are seen as a promising solution. In this paper, a remote cooling loop driven by a cryocooler and cold circulator is introduced, and an experimental study of the heat exchanger serving as the cryocooler-to-gas thermal interface is presented. This thermal interface is intended for integration into a remote cooling system, which is designed to intercept the 300 W heat load from 3 kA hybrid current leads. The heat exchanger successfully maintained a gas outlet temperature below 50 K under 300 W. A mathematical model is developed to forecast both the gas outlet temperatures and the cooling capacity of the heat exchanger for a given geometry, and validation is conducted using experimental data. Furthermore, an experimental verification of the isentropic efficiency of the selected cold circulator is included. Finally, an estimation of the mass flow within the hydraulic system is presented and compared with the measured results.
{"title":"Experimental evaluation of a thermal interface and a cold circulator used in remote cooling loop driven by a cryocooler","authors":"Weronika Głuchowska , Thomas Hanhart , Tomasz Banaszkiewicz , Philippe Benoit , Benoit Curé , Maciej Chorowski , Alexey Dudarev , Anna Kario , Matthias Mentink , Jasper Van Der Werf","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104199","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104199","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Due to helium’s limited accessibility and non-renewable nature, superconducting systems need more sustainable alternatives to cryogenic plants, which feature elevated helium losses. Cryogenic systems based on commercially available cryocoolers are seen as a promising solution. In this paper, a remote cooling loop driven by a cryocooler and cold circulator is introduced, and an experimental study of the heat exchanger serving as the cryocooler-to-gas thermal interface is presented. This thermal interface is intended for integration into a remote cooling system, which is designed to intercept the 300 W heat load from 3 kA hybrid current leads. The heat exchanger successfully maintained a gas outlet temperature below 50 K under 300 W. A mathematical model is developed to forecast both the gas outlet temperatures and the cooling capacity of the heat exchanger for a given geometry, and validation is conducted using experimental data. Furthermore, an experimental verification of the isentropic efficiency of the selected cold circulator is included. Finally, an estimation of the mass flow within the hydraulic system is presented and compared with the measured results.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104199"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145217971","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-20DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104197
Yagang Shi , Weiping Chai , Shuping Chen , Dongsheng Ni , Xudong Wang , Jianlong Liu , Xiaowei Xu , Jiajian Ding , Meitang Tang , Lijun Mao , Jiancheng Yang
The cryocatcher serves as a crucial apparatus for mitigating the dynamic vacuum effects within a superconducting synchrotron. In anticipation of the stringent beam collimation demands imposed by the high-intensity beam operation in the forthcoming BRing-S project, a prototype cryocatcher has been meticulously designed and fabricated. This study is dedicated to an in-depth examination of the thermal design and cryogenic performance of the cryocatcher. A comprehensive thermodynamic model has been developed to facilitate finite element analysis and numerical simulations of the heat transfer mechanisms inherent in its critical components, including the target block, tension rods, thermal shield, beam chamber and bellows, the structure was optimized based on simulation results to minimize heat leakage. Additionally, this work systematically summarizes the thermal loads encountered at various temperature regimes. The cryocatcher subsequently underwent cooling tests, the results of which corroborate that the thermal design aligns with the predefined performance benchmarks. Consequently, this study has accumulated relevant experience for the subsequent formal research on cryocatcher and laid a foundation for the future online operation of cryocatcher.
{"title":"Thermal design and performance of cryocatcher for BRing-S","authors":"Yagang Shi , Weiping Chai , Shuping Chen , Dongsheng Ni , Xudong Wang , Jianlong Liu , Xiaowei Xu , Jiajian Ding , Meitang Tang , Lijun Mao , Jiancheng Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104197","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104197","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The cryocatcher serves as a crucial apparatus for mitigating the dynamic vacuum effects within a superconducting synchrotron. In anticipation of the stringent beam collimation demands imposed by the high-intensity beam operation in the forthcoming BRing-S project, a prototype cryocatcher has been meticulously designed and fabricated. This study is dedicated to an in-depth examination of the thermal design and cryogenic performance of the cryocatcher. A comprehensive thermodynamic model has been developed to facilitate finite element analysis and numerical simulations of the heat transfer mechanisms inherent in its critical components, including the target block, tension rods, thermal shield, beam chamber and bellows, the structure was optimized based on simulation results to minimize heat leakage. Additionally, this work systematically summarizes the thermal loads encountered at various temperature regimes. The cryocatcher subsequently underwent cooling tests, the results of which corroborate that the thermal design aligns with the predefined performance benchmarks. Consequently, this study has accumulated relevant experience for the subsequent formal research on cryocatcher and laid a foundation for the future online operation of cryocatcher.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104197"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145156053","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-18DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104202
Rongrong Lv , Ye Wang , Zhongqi Zuo , Yonghua Huang
Recent booming applications of cryogenic fluids in aerospace engineering, liquefied natural gas industry, and hydrogen energy have accentuated the demands for long-term cryogenic storage. A more comprehensive understanding of cryogenic evaporation in storage tanks has become a priority for reducing boil-off loss, extending storage duration, and guaranteeing container safety. Efficient modeling of interfacial heat transport has become the bottleneck for high-precision prediction of the steady-state evaporation of cryogenic fluids. This study addresses this challenge by developing a fixed-interface multi-region model, to simulate the steady-state evaporation characteristics in cryogenic storage tanks. The fluid domain is modeled as two regions for liquid and vapor phases and a fixed interface. The model is validated to accurately predict the temperature jump at the liquid–vapor interface. An analysis of the interfacial energy transport patterns is also provided. Furthermore, the performance of the fixed-interface model was compared with a VOF model in terms of simulation speed, interfacial temperature, and interface geometry. The results showed that the fixed multi-region model accurately predicted the interfacial temperature distributions, particularly in the vicinity of the liquid–vapor interface compared to the VOF model, while demanding only 3.6 % of the computational resources.
{"title":"Evaluation of a fixed-interface multi-region model for long-term evaporation in cryogenic propellant tanks","authors":"Rongrong Lv , Ye Wang , Zhongqi Zuo , Yonghua Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104202","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104202","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Recent booming applications of cryogenic fluids in aerospace engineering, liquefied natural gas industry, and hydrogen energy have accentuated the demands for long-term cryogenic storage. A more comprehensive understanding of cryogenic evaporation in storage tanks has become a priority for reducing boil-off loss, extending storage duration, and guaranteeing container safety. Efficient modeling of interfacial heat transport has become the bottleneck for high-precision prediction of the steady-state evaporation of cryogenic fluids. This study addresses this challenge by developing a fixed-interface multi-region model, to simulate the steady-state evaporation characteristics in cryogenic storage tanks. The fluid domain is modeled as two regions for liquid and vapor phases and a fixed interface. The model is validated to accurately predict the temperature jump at the liquid–vapor interface. An analysis of the interfacial energy transport patterns is also provided. Furthermore, the performance of the fixed-interface model was compared with a VOF model in terms of simulation speed, interfacial temperature, and interface geometry. The results showed that the fixed multi-region model accurately predicted the interfacial temperature distributions, particularly in the vicinity of the liquid–vapor interface compared to the VOF model, while demanding only 3.6 % of the computational resources.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104202"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145156052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-17DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104201
Xiang Fan , Juan Wang , Shubao Zhao , Jia Quan , Miguang Zhao , Jingtao Liang
Sub-Kelvin technologies are essential for applications such as space detection, quantum computing, and condensed-matter physics. Among traditional sub-Kelvin technologies, including sorption cooling, adiabatic demagnetization refrigeration, and dilution refrigeration, sorption cooling shows unique competitiveness in space environments for its vibration-free operation, compactness, and absence of electromagnetic interference. Based on the principle of pressure reduction evaporation cooling, 3He sorption coolers achieve temperatures around 300 mK, surpassing 4He sorption coolers (∼800 mK) due to higher vapour pressures and the absence of superfluid constraints. 3He sorption systems, initially developed in the 1960s, remain crucial for missions requiring reliability and simplicity. Advancements include modular and multi-stage designs, extending operating temperatures to 250 mK. Continuous systems using two sorption pumps mitigate intermittency, enabling stable cooling for weeks. Space applications face micro-gravity challenges, which are addressed by using porous matrices that leverage capillary forces to confine liquid 3He. Successful implementations include the Herschel satellite, which achieved 290 mK with 10 μW cooling power. Hybrid coolers, which integrate sorption coolers with ADR or DR, achieve ultra-low temperatures (∼50 mK), essential for missions like SPICA and ATHENA. Current research is focused on gravity-independent designs, mechanical precooling to eliminate liquid helium dependency, and enhancing cryochains from 300 K to 50 mK. This paper reviews 3He sorption cooler principles, technological evolution from cryostats to modular systems, space adaptations, and hybrid architectures. Key challenges related to non-equilibrium adsorption and micro-gravity fluid dynamics are discussed.
{"title":"Review and history of sub-Kelvin 3He sorption cooling systems: From basic mechanisms to applications","authors":"Xiang Fan , Juan Wang , Shubao Zhao , Jia Quan , Miguang Zhao , Jingtao Liang","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104201","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104201","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sub-Kelvin technologies are essential for applications such as space detection, quantum computing, and condensed-matter physics. Among traditional sub-Kelvin technologies, including sorption cooling, adiabatic demagnetization refrigeration, and dilution refrigeration, sorption cooling shows unique competitiveness in space environments for its vibration-free operation, compactness, and absence of electromagnetic interference. Based on the principle of pressure reduction evaporation cooling, <sup>3</sup>He sorption coolers achieve temperatures around 300 mK, surpassing <sup>4</sup>He sorption coolers (∼800 mK) due to higher vapour pressures and the absence of superfluid constraints. <sup>3</sup>He sorption systems, initially developed in the 1960s, remain crucial for missions requiring reliability and simplicity. Advancements include modular and multi-stage designs, extending operating temperatures to 250 mK. Continuous systems using two sorption pumps mitigate intermittency, enabling stable cooling for weeks. Space applications face micro-gravity challenges, which are addressed by using porous matrices that leverage capillary forces to confine liquid <sup>3</sup>He. Successful implementations include the Herschel satellite, which achieved 290 mK with 10 μW cooling power. Hybrid coolers, which integrate sorption coolers with ADR or DR, achieve ultra-low temperatures (∼50 mK), essential for missions like SPICA and ATHENA. Current research is focused on gravity-independent designs, mechanical precooling to eliminate liquid helium dependency, and enhancing cryochains from 300 K to 50 mK. This paper reviews <sup>3</sup>He sorption cooler principles, technological evolution from cryostats to modular systems, space adaptations, and hybrid architectures. Key challenges related to non-equilibrium adsorption and micro-gravity fluid dynamics are discussed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104201"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145118892","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-17DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104200
Gurkirat Singh, Kailash. N. Pandey
The present work focusses on the effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on impact toughness and tensile strength of Nimonic-90 super alloy. Significant improvement in tensile strength and impact toughness has been recorded due to the evolution in microstructure at cryogenic temperature (−196 °C) which includes grain size, micro voids and dimples. Out of 24 h and 36 h soaking period, best results in impact toughness, tensile strength and yield strength were obtained corresponding to 36 h soaking period. The maximum percentage improvement in impact toughness, tensile strength and yield strength was 46.32 %, 19.34 % and 17.16 % respectively when compared with untreated sample. The maximum percentage elongation was observed for the sample which was soaked for 24 h. In 36 h soaking period, the amount of dimples was more as compared to 24 h soaking period. The brittle fracture zone decreased in the Charpy impact samples with the increase in the soaking time from 24 h to 36 h. This was due to the formation of coarse and deeper dimples which absorbed more energy during fracture. The tensile strength and yield strength were found higher for 36 h soaking period than 24 h soaking period because in 24 h soaking period, the presence of voids and small number of carbides made the matrix of Nimonic-90 weaker than 36 h soaking period samples.
{"title":"Effect of DCT with post-tempering on impact toughness and tensile strength of nimonic-90 superalloy","authors":"Gurkirat Singh, Kailash. N. Pandey","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104200","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104200","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The present work focusses on the effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on impact toughness and tensile strength of Nimonic-90 super alloy. Significant improvement in tensile strength and impact toughness has been recorded due to the evolution in microstructure at cryogenic temperature (−196 °C) which includes grain size, micro voids and dimples. Out of 24 h and 36 h soaking period, best results in impact toughness, tensile strength and yield strength were obtained corresponding to 36 h soaking period. The maximum percentage improvement in impact toughness, tensile strength and yield strength was 46.32 %, 19.34 % and 17.16 % respectively when compared with untreated sample. The maximum percentage elongation was observed for the sample which was soaked for 24 h. In 36 h soaking period, the amount of dimples was more as compared to 24 h soaking period. The brittle fracture zone decreased in the Charpy impact samples with the increase in the soaking time from 24 h to 36 h. This was due to the formation of coarse and deeper dimples which absorbed more energy during fracture. The tensile strength and yield strength were found higher for 36 h soaking period than 24 h soaking period because in 24 h soaking period, the presence of voids and small number of carbides made the matrix of Nimonic-90 weaker than 36 h soaking period samples.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104200"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145109637","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-09-11DOI: 10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104191
Yishan Chen , Xu Wang , Jiahao Wan , Huajun Liu , Fang Liu , Jinggang Qin , Chao Zhou , Huan Jin , Peng Gao
REBCO superconducting tapes possess high critical temperature, large engineering critical current density, and high critical magnetic field, making them essential for winding high-field magnets above 20 T. Layer-wound coils offer advantages such as fewer joints and reduced Joule heating but involve inevitable hard-way bending, which induces strain that degrades critical current and can cause irreversible damage at high strain levels. This study investigates the effect of hard-way bending radius on the current-carrying properties of REBCO tapes with different structures. Critical current measurements were conducted in liquid nitrogen, combined with theoretical calculations and finite element simulations to characterize strain distribution. The simulation accuracy was verified by the distributed optical fiber technique. Results reveal a nonlinear relationship between strain and hard-way bending radius, with strain concentrated at the tape edges. At a hard-way bending radius of 200 mm, the critical current of copper-plated tape decreased to 20 %, multi-filament tape to 18 %, while stainless steel-encapsulated tape retained 70 % of its critical current. These findings provide a theoretical basis for optimizing layer-wound coil fabrication.
{"title":"Effect of hard-way bending strain on the current-carrying properties of the REBCO tape","authors":"Yishan Chen , Xu Wang , Jiahao Wan , Huajun Liu , Fang Liu , Jinggang Qin , Chao Zhou , Huan Jin , Peng Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104191","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cryogenics.2025.104191","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>RE</em>BCO superconducting tapes possess high critical temperature, large engineering critical current density, and high critical magnetic field, making them essential for winding high-field magnets above 20 T. Layer-wound coils offer advantages such as fewer joints and reduced Joule heating but involve inevitable hard-way bending, which induces strain that degrades critical current and can cause irreversible damage at high strain levels. This study investigates the effect of hard-way bending radius on the current-carrying properties of <em>RE</em>BCO tapes with different structures. Critical current measurements were conducted in liquid nitrogen, combined with theoretical calculations and finite element simulations to characterize strain distribution. The simulation accuracy was verified by the distributed optical fiber technique. Results reveal a nonlinear relationship between strain and hard-way bending radius, with strain concentrated at the tape edges. At a hard-way bending radius of 200 mm, the critical current of copper-plated tape decreased to 20 %, multi-filament tape to 18 %, while stainless steel-encapsulated tape retained 70 % of its critical current. These findings provide a theoretical basis for optimizing layer-wound coil fabrication.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":10812,"journal":{"name":"Cryogenics","volume":"152 ","pages":"Article 104191"},"PeriodicalIF":2.1,"publicationDate":"2025-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145097352","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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