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Glass transition of polymers in bulk, confined geometries, and near interfaces 聚合物的玻璃化转变在整体,受限几何,和近界面
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-30 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/aa5284
S. Napolitano, E. Glynos, N. Tito
When cooled or pressurized, polymer melts exhibit a tremendous reduction in molecular mobility. If the process is performed at a constant rate, the structural relaxation time of the liquid eventually exceeds the time allowed for equilibration. This brings the system out of equilibrium, and the liquid is operationally defined as a glass—a solid lacking long-range order. Despite almost 100 years of research on the (liquid/)glass transition, it is not yet clear which molecular mechanisms are responsible for the unique slow-down in molecular dynamics. In this review, we first introduce the reader to experimental methodologies, theories, and simulations of glassy polymer dynamics and vitrification. We then analyse the impact of connectivity, structure, and chain environment on molecular motion at the length scale of a few monomers, as well as how macromolecular architecture affects the glass transition of non-linear polymers. We then discuss a revised picture of nanoconfinement, going beyond a simple picture based on interfacial interactions and surface/volume ratio. Analysis of a large body of experimental evidence, results from molecular simulations, and predictions from theory supports, instead, a more complex framework where other parameters are relevant. We focus discussion specifically on local order, free volume, irreversible chain adsorption, the Debye–Waller factor of confined and confining media, chain rigidity, and the absolute value of the vitrification temperature. We end by highlighting the molecular origin of distributions in relaxation times and glass transition temperatures which exceed, by far, the size of a chain. Fast relaxation modes, almost universally present at the free surface between polymer and air, are also remarked upon. These modes relax at rates far larger than those characteristic of glassy dynamics in bulk. We speculate on how these may be a signature of unique relaxation processes occurring in confined or heterogeneous polymeric systems.
当冷却或加压时,聚合物熔体表现出分子迁移率的极大降低。如果该过程以恒定速率进行,则液体的结构松弛时间最终超过允许的平衡时间。这使系统失去平衡,液体在操作上被定义为玻璃——一种缺乏长程有序的固体。尽管对(液体/玻璃)转变的研究已经进行了近100年,但目前尚不清楚是哪种分子机制导致了分子动力学的独特减速。在这篇综述中,我们首先向读者介绍了玻璃聚合物动力学和玻璃化的实验方法、理论和模拟。然后,我们分析了连通性、结构和链环境对几个单体长度尺度下分子运动的影响,以及大分子结构如何影响非线性聚合物的玻璃化转变。然后,我们讨论了一个修正的纳米约束图,超越了基于界面相互作用和表面/体积比的简单图。相反,对大量实验证据、分子模拟结果和理论预测的分析支持了一个更复杂的框架,其中其他参数是相关的。我们重点讨论了局部顺序、自由体积、不可逆链吸附、受限和受限介质的Debye-Waller因子、链刚度和玻璃化温度的绝对值。我们最后强调了弛豫时间和玻璃化转变温度分布的分子起源,这些分布远远超过了链的大小。快速弛豫模式,几乎普遍存在于聚合物和空气之间的自由表面,也被评论。这些模式的弛豫速率远远大于体玻璃动力学的特性。我们推测这些可能是在受限或非均相聚合物体系中发生的独特弛豫过程的标志。
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引用次数: 278
Theory of scanning tunneling spectroscopy: from Kondo impurities to heavy fermion materials 扫描隧道光谱理论:从近藤杂质到重费米子物质
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-26 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/80/1/014502
D. Morr
Kondo systems ranging from the single Kondo impurity to heavy fermion materials present us with a plethora of unconventional properties whose theoretical understanding is still one of the major open problems in condensed matter physics. Over the last few years, groundbreaking scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) experiments have provided unprecedented new insight into the electronic structure of Kondo systems. Interpreting the results of these experiments—the differential conductance and the quasi-particle interference spectrum—however, has been complicated by the fact that electrons tunneling from the STS tip into the system can tunnel either into the heavy magnetic moment or the light conduction band states. In this article, we briefly review the theoretical progress made in understanding how quantum interference between these two tunneling paths affects the experimental STS results. We show how this theoretical insight has allowed us to interpret the results of STS experiments on a series of heavy fermion materials providing detailed knowledge of their complex electronic structure. It is this knowledge that is a conditio sine qua non for developing a deeper understanding of the fascinating properties exhibited by heavy fermion materials, ranging from unconventional superconductivity to non-Fermi-liquid behavior in the vicinity of quantum critical points.
从单一的近藤杂质到重费米子材料的近藤系统向我们展示了大量的非常规性质,这些性质的理论理解仍然是凝聚态物理中主要的开放问题之一。在过去的几年中,突破性的扫描隧道光谱(STS)实验为近藤系统的电子结构提供了前所未有的新见解。然而,解释这些实验的结果——差分电导和准粒子干涉谱——由于电子从STS尖端隧穿到系统中可以隧穿到重磁矩或光导带状态这一事实而变得复杂。在本文中,我们简要回顾了在理解这两个隧道路径之间的量子干涉如何影响实验STS结果方面所取得的理论进展。我们展示了这一理论见解如何使我们能够解释一系列重费米子材料的STS实验结果,提供了其复杂电子结构的详细知识。正是这些知识是深入了解重费米子材料所表现出的迷人特性的必要条件,从非常规的超导性到量子临界点附近的非费米液体行为。
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引用次数: 20
Exotic magnetic states in Pauli-limited superconductors 保利极限超导体中的奇异磁态
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-23 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/80/3/034501
M. Kenzelmann
Magnetism and superconductivity compete or interact in complex and intricate ways. Here we review the special case where novel magnetic phenomena appear due to superconductivity, but do not exist without it. Such states have recently been identified in unconventional superconductors. They are different from the mere coexistence of magnetic order and superconductivity in conventional superconductors, or from competing magnetic and superconducting phases in many materials. We describe the recent progress in the study of such exotic magnetic phases, and articulate the many open questions in this field.
磁性和超导性以复杂的方式相互竞争或相互作用。在这里,我们回顾了由于超导而出现的新磁现象,但没有超导就不存在的特殊情况。最近在非常规超导体中发现了这种状态。它们不同于常规超导体中磁序和超导的单纯共存,也不同于许多材料中磁相和超导相的竞争。本文介绍了这种奇异磁相的最新研究进展,并阐明了该领域的许多悬而未决的问题。
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引用次数: 12
Applications of nuclear physics 核物理的应用
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-10 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/80/2/026301
A. Hayes
Today the applications of nuclear physics span a very broad range of topics and fields. This review discusses a number of aspects of these applications, including selected topics and concepts in nuclear reactor physics, nuclear fusion, nuclear non-proliferation, nuclear-geophysics, and nuclear medicine. The review begins with a historic summary of the early years in applied nuclear physics, with an emphasis on the huge developments that took place around the time of World War II, and that underlie the physics involved in designs of nuclear explosions, controlled nuclear energy, and nuclear fusion. The review then moves to focus on modern applications of these concepts, including the basic concepts and diagnostics developed for the forensics of nuclear explosions, the nuclear diagnostics at the National Ignition Facility, nuclear reactor safeguards, and the detection of nuclear material production and trafficking. The review also summarizes recent developments in nuclear geophysics and nuclear medicine. The nuclear geophysics areas discussed include geo-chronology, nuclear logging for industry, the Oklo reactor, and geo-neutrinos. The section on nuclear medicine summarizes the critical advances in nuclear imaging, including PET and SPECT imaging, targeted radionuclide therapy, and the nuclear physics of medical isotope production. Each subfield discussed requires a review article unto itself, which is not the intention of the current review; rather, the current review is intended for readers who wish to get a broad understanding of applied nuclear physics.
今天,核物理学的应用跨越了非常广泛的主题和领域。这篇综述讨论了这些应用的一些方面,包括核反应堆物理、核聚变、核不扩散、核地球物理和核医学中的选定主题和概念。这篇综述首先对早期应用核物理学进行了历史性的总结,重点是第二次世界大战前后发生的巨大发展,这些发展奠定了核爆炸、受控核能和核聚变设计所涉及的物理学的基础。然后,审查将重点放在这些概念的现代应用上,包括为核爆炸取证而开发的基本概念和诊断方法、国家点火设施的核诊断方法、核反应堆保障措施以及对核材料生产和贩运的探测。综述了核地球物理和核医学的最新进展。讨论的核地球物理领域包括地质年代学、工业核测井、奥克洛反应堆和地球中微子。核医学部分总结了核成像的关键进展,包括PET和SPECT成像,靶向放射性核素治疗以及医用同位素生产的核物理学。所讨论的每个子领域都需要一篇综述文章,这不是当前综述的意图;更确切地说,当前的评论是为希望对应用核物理学有广泛了解的读者准备的。
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引用次数: 18
Scientific developments of liquid crystal-based optical memory: a review 基于液晶的光存储器的科学进展综述
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-01 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/80/1/016601
J. Prakash, Achu Chandran, A. Biradar
The memory behavior in liquid crystals (LCs), although rarely observed, has made very significant headway over the past three decades since their discovery in nematic type LCs. It has gone from a mere scientific curiosity to application in variety of commodities. The memory element formed by numerous LCs have been protected by patents, and some commercialized, and used as compensation to non-volatile memory devices, and as memory in personal computers and digital cameras. They also have the low cost, large area, high speed, and high density memory needed for advanced computers and digital electronics. Short and long duration memory behavior for industrial applications have been obtained from several LC materials, and an LC memory with interesting features and applications has been demonstrated using numerous LCs. However, considerable challenges still exist in searching for highly efficient, stable, and long-lifespan materials and methods so that the development of useful memory devices is possible. This review focuses on the scientific and technological approach of fascinating applications of LC-based memory. We address the introduction, development status, novel design and engineering principles, and parameters of LC memory. We also address how the amalgamation of LCs could bring significant change/improvement in memory effects in the emerging field of nanotechnology, and the application of LC memory as the active component for futuristic and interesting memory devices.
液晶的记忆行为虽然很少被观察到,但自从在向列型液晶中被发现以来,在过去的三十年里取得了很大的进展。它已经从单纯的科学好奇心发展到在各种商品中的应用。由众多lc组成的存储元件已受到专利保护,有些已商业化,并用作非易失性存储设备的补偿,以及用作个人计算机和数码相机中的存储器。它们还具有先进计算机和数字电子产品所需的低成本、大面积、高速度和高密度存储器。从几种LC材料中获得了工业应用的短时间和长时间记忆行为,并且使用许多LC证明了具有有趣特征和应用的LC存储器。然而,在寻找高效、稳定和长寿命的材料和方法方面,仍然存在相当大的挑战,因此开发有用的存储设备是可能的。本文综述了基于lc的记忆的科学和技术途径。本文介绍了LC存储器的介绍、发展现状、新设计和工程原理以及参数。我们还讨论了在新兴的纳米技术领域中,LC的融合如何带来记忆效果的重大变化/改进,以及LC存储器作为未来和有趣的存储设备的主动组件的应用。
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引用次数: 33
High-pressure studies with x-rays using diamond anvil cells 用金刚石砧细胞进行x射线高压研究
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-01 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/80/1/016101
G. Shen, H. Mao
Pressure profoundly alters all states of matter. The symbiotic development of ultrahigh-pressure diamond anvil cells, to compress samples to sustainable multi-megabar pressures; and synchrotron x-ray techniques, to probe materials’ properties in situ, has enabled the exploration of rich high-pressure (HP) science. In this article, we first introduce the essential concept of diamond anvil cell technology, together with recent developments and its integration with other extreme environments. We then provide an overview of the latest developments in HP synchrotron techniques, their applications, and current problems, followed by a discussion of HP scientific studies using x-rays in the key multidisciplinary fields. These HP studies include: HP x-ray emission spectroscopy, which provides information on the filled electronic states of HP samples; HP x-ray Raman spectroscopy, which probes the HP chemical bonding changes of light elements; HP electronic inelastic x-ray scattering spectroscopy, which accesses high energy electronic phenomena, including electronic band structure, Fermi surface, excitons, plasmons, and their dispersions; HP resonant inelastic x-ray scattering spectroscopy, which probes shallow core excitations, multiplet structures, and spin-resolved electronic structure; HP nuclear resonant x-ray spectroscopy, which provides phonon densities of state and time-resolved Mössbauer information; HP x-ray imaging, which provides information on hierarchical structures, dynamic processes, and internal strains; HP x-ray diffraction, which determines the fundamental structures and densities of single-crystal, polycrystalline, nanocrystalline, and non-crystalline materials; and HP radial x-ray diffraction, which yields deviatoric, elastic and rheological information. Integrating these tools with hydrostatic or uniaxial pressure media, laser and resistive heating, and cryogenic cooling, has enabled investigations of the structural, vibrational, electronic, and magnetic properties of materials over a wide range of pressure-temperature conditions.
压力深刻地改变了物质的所有状态。超高压金刚石砧胞的共生发育,将样品压缩到可持续的几兆巴压力;同步加速器x射线技术,在原位探测材料的性质,使探索丰富的高压(HP)科学成为可能。在本文中,我们首先介绍了金刚石砧细胞技术的基本概念,以及最近的发展和与其他极端环境的集成。然后,我们概述了HP同步加速器技术的最新发展、应用和当前存在的问题,然后讨论了HP在关键多学科领域中使用x射线的科学研究。这些HP研究包括:HP x射线发射光谱,提供HP样品的填充电子态信息;HP x射线拉曼光谱,用于探测轻元素HP化学键的变化;HP电子非弹性x射线散射光谱,研究高能电子现象,包括电子能带结构、费米表面、激子、等离子体及其色散;HP共振非弹性x射线散射光谱,用于探测浅核激发、多重结构和自旋分辨电子结构;HP核共振x射线光谱学,提供声子密度的状态和时间分辨Mössbauer信息;HP x射线成像,提供层次结构、动态过程和内部应变的信息;HP x射线衍射,用于确定单晶、多晶、纳米晶和非晶材料的基本结构和密度;HP径向x射线衍射,得到偏差、弹性和流变信息。将这些工具与静流体或单轴压力介质、激光和电阻加热以及低温冷却相结合,可以在广泛的压力-温度条件下研究材料的结构、振动、电子和磁性能。
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引用次数: 109
Advances in nanowire bioelectronics 纳米线生物电子学进展
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-01 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/80/1/016701
W. Zhou, Xiaochuan Dai, C. Lieber
Semiconductor nanowires represent powerful building blocks for next generation bioelectronics given their attractive properties, including nanometer-scale footprint comparable to subcellular structures and bio-molecules, configurable in nonstandard device geometries readily interfaced with biological systems, high surface-to-volume ratios, fast signal responses, and minimum consumption of energy. In this review article, we summarize recent progress in the field of nanowire bioelectronics with a focus primarily on silicon nanowire field-effect transistor biosensors. First, the synthesis and assembly of semiconductor nanowires will be described, including the basics of nanowire FETs crucial to their configuration as biosensors. Second, we will introduce and review recent results in nanowire bioelectronics for biomedical applications ranging from label-free sensing of biomolecules, to extracellular and intracellular electrophysiological recording.
半导体纳米线代表了下一代生物电子学的强大构建模块,因为它们具有诱人的特性,包括与亚细胞结构和生物分子相当的纳米级足迹,可在非标准器件几何形状中配置,易于与生物系统接口,高表面体积比,快速信号响应和最小的能量消耗。本文综述了纳米线生物电子学领域的最新进展,重点介绍了硅纳米线场效应晶体管生物传感器的研究进展。首先,将描述半导体纳米线的合成和组装,包括纳米线场效应管的基础知识,这对它们作为生物传感器的配置至关重要。其次,我们将介绍和回顾纳米线生物电子学在生物医学应用方面的最新成果,从生物分子的无标记传感到细胞外和细胞内电生理记录。
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引用次数: 92
Europium-based iron pnictides: a unique laboratory for magnetism, superconductivity and structural effects 铕基铁化合物:一个独特的磁性、超导性和结构效应实验室
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-01 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/80/1/016501
S. Zapf, M. Dressel
Despite decades of intense research, the origin of high-temperature superconductivity in cuprates and iron-based compounds is still a mystery. Magnetism and superconductivity are traditionally antagonistic phenomena; nevertheless, there is basically no doubt left that unconventional superconductivity is closely linked to magnetism. But this is not the whole story; recently, also structural effects related to the so-called nematic phase gained considerable attention. In order to obtain more information about this peculiar interplay, systematic material research is one of the most important attempts, revealing from time to time unexpected effects. Europium-based iron pnictides are the latest example of such a completely paradigmatic material, as they display not only spin-density-wave and superconducting ground states, but also local Eu2+ magnetism at a similar temperature scale. Here we review recent experimental progress in determining the complex phase diagrams of europium-based iron pnictides. The conclusions drawn from the observations reach far beyond these model systems. Thus, although europium-based iron pnictides are very peculiar, they provide a unique platform to study the common interplay of structural-nematic, magnetic and electronic effects in high-temperature superconductors.
尽管经过数十年的深入研究,铜酸盐和铁基化合物的高温超导性的起源仍然是一个谜。磁性和超导性传统上是对立的现象;然而,基本上毫无疑问,非常规的超导性与磁性密切相关。但这不是故事的全部;最近,与所谓的向列相有关的结构效应也得到了相当大的关注。为了获得更多关于这种特殊相互作用的信息,系统的材料研究是最重要的尝试之一,不时揭示意想不到的效果。铕基铁化合物是这种完全范例材料的最新例子,因为它们不仅表现出自旋密度波和超导基态,而且在相似的温度尺度下也表现出局部Eu2+磁性。本文综述了近年来在确定铕基铁化合物复相图方面的实验进展。从观测中得出的结论远远超出了这些模式系统。因此,尽管铕基铁化合物非常特殊,但它们为研究高温超导体中结构-向列、磁性和电子效应的共同相互作用提供了一个独特的平台。
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引用次数: 61
Nanoscale electrodynamics of strongly correlated quantum materials 强相关量子材料的纳米级电动力学
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2017-01-01 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/80/1/014501
Mengkun Liu, A. Sternbach, A. Sternbach, D. Basov, D. Basov
Electronic, magnetic, and structural phase inhomogeneities are ubiquitous in strongly correlated quantum materials. The characteristic length scales of the phase inhomogeneities can range from atomic to mesoscopic, depending on their microscopic origins as well as various sample dependent factors. Therefore, progress with the understanding of correlated phenomena critically depends on the experimental techniques suitable to provide appropriate spatial resolution. This requirement is difficult to meet for some of the most informative methods in condensed matter physics, including infrared and optical spectroscopy. Yet, recent developments in near-field optics and imaging enabled a detailed characterization of the electromagnetic response with a spatial resolution down to 10 nm. Thus it is now feasible to exploit at the nanoscale well-established capabilities of optical methods for characterization of electronic processes and lattice dynamics in diverse classes of correlated quantum systems. This review offers a concise description of the state-of-the-art near-field techniques applied to prototypical correlated quantum materials. We also discuss complementary microscopic and spectroscopic methods which reveal important mesoscopic dynamics of quantum materials at different energy scales.
电子、磁性和结构相不均匀性在强相关量子材料中普遍存在。相不均匀性的特征长度尺度可以从原子尺度到介观尺度,这取决于它们的微观起源以及各种样品依赖因素。因此,对相关现象的理解的进展关键取决于适合提供适当空间分辨率的实验技术。这一要求很难满足凝聚态物理中一些最具信息量的方法,包括红外和光谱学。然而,近场光学和成像技术的最新发展使得电磁响应的详细表征能够达到10纳米的空间分辨率。因此,在纳米尺度上利用光学方法的成熟能力来表征各种相关量子系统中的电子过程和晶格动力学是可行的。本文简要介绍了应用于原型相关量子材料的最新近场技术。我们还讨论了互补的微观和光谱方法,揭示了不同能量尺度下量子材料的重要介观动力学。
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引用次数: 60
The properties of ultrapure delafossite metals 超纯长辉石金属的性质
IF 18.1 1区 物理与天体物理 Q1 PHYSICS, MULTIDISCIPLINARY Pub Date : 2016-12-15 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6633/aa50e5
A. Mackenzie
Although they were first synthesized in chemistry laboratories nearly fifty years ago, the physical properties of the metals PdCoO2, PtCoO2 and PdCrO2 have only more recently been studied in detail. The delafossite structure contains triangular co-ordinated atomic layers, and electrical transport in the delafossite metals is strongly 2D. Their most notable feature is their in-plane conductivity, which is amazingly high for oxide metals. At room temperature, the conductivity of non-magnetic PdCoO2 and PtCoO2 is higher per carrier than those of any alkali metal and even the most conductive elements, copper and silver. At low temperatures the best crystals have resistivities of a few nΩ cm, corresponding to mean free paths of tens of microns. PdCrO2 is a frustrated antiferromagnetic metal, with magnetic scattering contributing to the resistivity at high temperatures and small gaps opening in the Fermi surface below the Néel temperature. There is good evidence that electronic correlations are weak in the Pd/Pt layers but strong in the Co/Cr layers; indeed the Cr layer in PdCrO2 is thought to be a Mott insulator. The delafossite metals therefore act like natural heterostructures between strongly correlated and nearly free electron sub-systems. Combined with the extremely high conductivity, they provide many opportunities to study electrical transport and other physical properties in new regimes. The purpose of this review is to describe current knowledge of these fascinating materials and set the scene for what is likely to be a considerable amount of future research.
虽然它们是近50年前在化学实验室中首次合成的,但金属PdCoO2, PtCoO2和PdCrO2的物理性质直到最近才被详细研究。delafote结构包含三角形配位原子层,delafote金属中的电输运是强二维的。它们最显著的特征是它们的面内导电性,这对于氧化金属来说是惊人的高。在室温下,非磁性PdCoO2和PtCoO2的每载流子导电性高于任何碱金属,甚至高于导电性能最好的元素铜和银。在低温下,最好的晶体具有几nΩ cm的电阻率,对应于几十微米的平均自由程。PdCrO2是一种受挫的反铁磁性金属,其磁散射导致其在高温下的电阻率和低于nsamel温度的费米表面的小间隙。有充分的证据表明,Pd/Pt层的电子相关性较弱,而Co/Cr层的电子相关性较强;事实上,PdCrO2中的Cr层被认为是莫特绝缘体。因此,delafote金属就像在强相关和几乎自由电子子系统之间的天然异质结构。结合极高的导电性,它们为研究新体制下的电输运和其他物理性质提供了许多机会。这篇综述的目的是描述这些迷人的材料的当前知识,并为可能是相当数量的未来研究设置场景。
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引用次数: 126
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