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Faulting Processes Unveiled by Magnetic Properties of Fault Rocks 断裂岩磁性揭示断裂过程
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-10-03 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000690
Tao Yang, Yu-Min Chou, Eric C. Ferré, Mark J. Dekkers, Jianye Chen, En-Chao Yeh, Wataru Tanikawa

As iron-bearing minerals—ferrimagnetic minerals in particular—are sensitive to stress, temperature, and presence of fluids in fault zones, their magnetic properties provide valuable insights into physical and chemical processes affecting fault rocks. Here, we review the advances made in magnetic studies of fault rocks in the past three decades. We provide a synthesis of the mechanisms that account for the magnetic changes in fault rocks and insights gained from magnetic research. We also integrate nonmagnetic approaches in the evaluation of the magnetic properties of fault rocks. Magnetic analysis unveils microscopic processes operating in the fault zones such as frictional heating, energy dissipation, and fluid percolation that are otherwise difficult to constrain. This makes magnetic properties suited as a “strain indicator,” a “geothermometer,” and a “fluid tracer” in fault zones. However, a full understanding of faulting-induced magnetic changes has not been accomplished yet. Future research should focus on detailed magnetic property analysis of fault zones including magnetic microscanning and magnetic fabric analysis. To calibrate the observations on natural fault zones, laboratory experiments should be carried out that enable to extract the exact physicochemical conditions that led to a certain magnetic signature. Potential avenues could include (1) magnetic investigations on natural and synthetic fault rocks after friction experiments, (2) laboratory simulation of fault fluid percolation, (3) paleomagnetic analysis of postkinematic remanence components associated with faulting processes, and (4) synergy of interdisciplinary approaches in mineral-magnetic studies. This would help to place our understanding of the microphysics of faulting on a much stronger footing.

由于含铁矿物——尤其是铁磁性矿物——对应力、温度和断裂带中流体的存在很敏感,它们的磁性能为研究影响断裂带岩石的物理和化学过程提供有价值的见解。本文综述了近三十年来断层岩磁学研究的进展。我们提供了一个综合的机制,说明在断层岩石的磁性变化和见解从磁性研究中获得。我们也整合了非磁性方法来评价断层岩石的磁性。磁分析揭示了在断裂带中运行的微观过程,如摩擦加热、能量耗散和流体渗透,否则很难约束。这使得磁特性适合作为断层带的“应变指示器”、“地温计”和“流体示踪剂”。然而,对断层诱发的地磁变化尚未完全了解。未来的研究应集中在对断裂带进行详细的磁性分析,包括磁微扫描和磁结构分析。为了校准对自然断层带的观测,必须进行实验室实验,以便能够提取导致某种磁特征的确切物理化学条件。潜在的途径可能包括:(1)摩擦实验后对天然和合成断层岩石的磁调查,(2)断层流体渗流的实验室模拟,(3)与断裂过程相关的运动学后剩余物成分的古磁学分析,以及(4)矿物磁学研究中跨学科方法的协同。这将有助于把我们对断层的微观物理学的理解放在一个更牢固的基础上。
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引用次数: 13
A Quarter Century of Wind Spacecraft Discoveries 四分之一世纪的风飞船发现
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-09-22 DOI: 10.1002/essoar.10504309.1
L. Wilson, A. Brosius, N. Gopalswamy, T. Nieves-chinchilla, A. Szabo, K. Hurley, T. Phan, J. Kasper, N. Lugaz, I. Richardson, C. Chen, D. Verscharen, R. Wicks, J. TenBarge
The Wind spacecraft, launched on November 1, 1994, is a critical element in NASA’s Heliophysics System Observatory (HSO)—a fleet of spacecraft created to understand the dynamics of the Sun‐Earth system. The combination of its longevity (>25 years in service), its diverse complement of instrumentation, and high resolution and accurate measurements has led to it becoming the “standard candle” of solar wind measurements. Wind has over 55 selectable public data products with over ∼1,100 total data variables (including OMNI data products) on SPDF/CDAWeb alone. These data have led to paradigm shifting results in studies of statistical solar wind trends, magnetic reconnection, large‐scale solar wind structures, kinetic physics, electromagnetic turbulence, the Van Allen radiation belts, coronal mass ejection topology, interplanetary and interstellar dust, the lunar wake, solar radio bursts, solar energetic particles, and extreme astrophysical phenomena such as gamma‐ray bursts. This review introduces the mission and instrument suites then discusses examples of the contributions by Wind to these scientific topics that emphasize its importance to both the fields of heliophysics and astrophysics.
Wind航天器于1994年11月1日发射,是美国国家航空航天局太阳物理系统天文台(HSO)的关键组成部分,该天文台是一支旨在了解太阳-地球系统动力学的航天器舰队。其使用寿命(超过25年)、仪器的多样性以及高分辨率和精确的测量使其成为太阳风测量的“标准蜡烛”。仅在SPDF/CDAWeb上,Wind就有超过55个可选择的公共数据产品,总数据变量(包括OMNI数据产品)就超过1100个。这些数据导致了统计太阳风趋势、磁重联、大规模太阳风结构、动力学物理学、电磁湍流、范艾伦辐射带、日冕物质抛射拓扑、行星际和星际尘埃、月球尾流、太阳射电暴、太阳高能粒子、,以及伽马射线暴等极端天体物理现象。这篇综述介绍了任务和仪器套件,然后讨论了Wind对这些科学主题的贡献,这些主题强调了Wind在太阳物理学和天体物理学领域的重要性。
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引用次数: 29
Impact Forecasting to Support Emergency Management of Natural Hazards 影响预测以支持自然灾害应急管理
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-08-24 DOI: 10.1029/2020RG000704
Bruno Merz, Christian Kuhlicke, Michael Kunz, Massimiliano Pittore, Andrey Babeyko, David N. Bresch, Daniela I. V. Domeisen, Frauke Feser, Inga Koszalka, Heidi Kreibich, Florian Pantillon, Stefano Parolai, Joaquim G. Pinto, Heinz Jürgen Punge, Eleonora Rivalta, Kai Schr?ter, Karen Strehlow, Ralf Weisse, Andreas Wurpts

Forecasting and early warning systems are important investments to protect lives, properties, and livelihood. While early warning systems are frequently used to predict the magnitude, location, and timing of potentially damaging events, these systems rarely provide impact estimates, such as the expected amount and distribution of physical damage, human consequences, disruption of services, or financial loss. Complementing early warning systems with impact forecasts has a twofold advantage: It would provide decision makers with richer information to take informed decisions about emergency measures and focus the attention of different disciplines on a common target. This would allow capitalizing on synergies between different disciplines and boosting the development of multihazard early warning systems. This review discusses the state of the art in impact forecasting for a wide range of natural hazards. We outline the added value of impact-based warnings compared to hazard forecasting for the emergency phase, indicate challenges and pitfalls, and synthesize the review results across hazard types most relevant for Europe.

预测和预警系统是保护生命、财产和生计的重要投资。虽然早期预警系统经常用于预测潜在破坏性事件的规模、位置和时间,但这些系统很少提供影响估计,例如物理损害的预期数量和分布、人类后果、服务中断或经济损失。用影响预测补充预警系统具有双重优势:它将为决策者提供更丰富的信息,以便就紧急措施作出知情决定,并使不同学科的注意力集中在一个共同目标上。这将有助于利用不同学科之间的协同作用,促进多灾种早期预警系统的发展。这篇综述讨论了广泛的自然灾害影响预测的最新进展。我们概述了与紧急阶段灾害预测相比,基于影响的预警的附加价值,指出了挑战和陷阱,并综合了与欧洲最相关的灾害类型的审查结果。
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引用次数: 83
The Sensitivity of the Antarctic Ice Sheet to a Changing Climate: Past, Present, and Future 南极冰盖对气候变化的敏感性:过去、现在和未来
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-08-15 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000663
T. L. Noble, E. J. Rohling, A. R. A. Aitken, H. C. Bostock, Z. Chase, N. Gomez, L. M. Jong, M. A. King, A. N. Mackintosh, F. S. McCormack, R. M. McKay, L. Menviel, S. J. Phipps, M. E. Weber, C. J. Fogwill, B. Gayen, N. R. Golledge, D. E. Gwyther, A. McC. Hogg, Y. M. Martos, B. Pena-Molino, J. Roberts, T. van de Flierdt, T. Williams

The Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS) is out of equilibrium with the current anthropogenic-enhanced climate forcing. Paleoenvironmental records and ice sheet models reveal that the AIS has been tightly coupled to the climate system during the past and indicate the potential for accelerated and sustained Antarctic ice mass loss into the future. Modern observations by contrast suggest that the AIS has only just started to respond to climate change in recent decades. The maximum projected sea level contribution from Antarctica to 2100 has increased significantly since the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report, although estimates continue to evolve with new observational and theoretical advances. This review brings together recent literature highlighting the progress made on the known processes and feedbacks that influence the stability of the AIS. Reducing the uncertainty in the magnitude and timing of the future sea level response to AIS change requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates knowledge of the interactions between the ice sheet, solid Earth, atmosphere, and ocean systems and across time scales of days to millennia. We start by reviewing the processes affecting AIS mass change, from atmospheric and oceanic processes acting on short time scales (days to decades), through to ice processes acting on intermediate time scales (decades to centuries) and the response to solid Earth interactions over longer time scales (decades to millennia). We then review the evidence of AIS changes from the Pliocene to the present and consider the projections of global sea level rise and their consequences. We highlight priority research areas required to improve our understanding of the processes and feedbacks governing AIS change.

南极冰盖(AIS)与当前人为增强的气候强迫不平衡。古环境记录和冰盖模型表明,AIS系统在过去与气候系统紧密耦合,并表明未来南极冰盖可能会加速和持续损失。相比之下,现代观测表明,近几十年来,AIS才刚刚开始对气候变化做出反应。自政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)第五次评估报告发布以来,南极洲对2100年海平面贡献的最大预估已显著增加,尽管预估仍在随着新的观测和理论进展而不断变化。本综述汇集了最近的文献,强调了在影响AIS稳定性的已知过程和反馈方面取得的进展。要减少未来海平面对AIS变化响应的幅度和时间的不确定性,需要采用多学科方法,整合冰盖、固体地球、大气和海洋系统之间的相互作用知识,跨越数天到数千年的时间尺度。我们首先回顾影响AIS质量变化的过程,从作用于短时间尺度(天到几十年)的大气和海洋过程,到作用于中间时间尺度(几十年到几百年)的冰过程,以及对较长时间尺度(几十年到几千年)的固体地球相互作用的响应。然后,我们回顾了从上新世到现在的AIS变化的证据,并考虑了全球海平面上升的预测及其后果。我们强调了需要优先研究的领域,以提高我们对AIS变化的过程和反馈的理解。
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引用次数: 55
An Assessment of Earth's Climate Sensitivity Using Multiple Lines of Evidence 利用多种证据评估地球气候敏感性
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-07-22 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000678
S. C. Sherwood, M. J. Webb, J. D. Annan, K. C. Armour, P. M. Forster, J. C. Hargreaves, G. Hegerl, S. A. Klein, K. D. Marvel, E. J. Rohling, M. Watanabe, T. Andrews, P. Braconnot, C. S. Bretherton, G. L. Foster, Z. Hausfather, A. S. von der Heydt, R. Knutti, T. Mauritsen, J. R. Norris, C. Proistosescu, M. Rugenstein, G. A. Schmidt, K. B. Tokarska, M. D. Zelinka

We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes feedback process understanding, the historical climate record, and the paleoclimate record. An S value lower than 2 K is difficult to reconcile with any of the three lines of evidence. The amount of cooling during the Last Glacial Maximum provides strong evidence against values of S greater than 4.5 K. Other lines of evidence in combination also show that this is relatively unlikely. We use a Bayesian approach to produce a probability density function (PDF) for S given all the evidence, including tests of robustness to difficult-to-quantify uncertainties and different priors. The 66% range is 2.6–3.9 K for our Baseline calculation and remains within 2.3–4.5 K under the robustness tests; corresponding 5–95% ranges are 2.3–4.7 K, bounded by 2.0–5.7 K (although such high-confidence ranges should be regarded more cautiously). This indicates a stronger constraint on S than reported in past assessments, by lifting the low end of the range. This narrowing occurs because the three lines of evidence agree and are judged to be largely independent and because of greater confidence in understanding feedback processes and in combining evidence. We identify promising avenues for further narrowing the range in S, in particular using comprehensive models and process understanding to address limitations in the traditional forcing-feedback paradigm for interpreting past changes.

我们评估了与大气CO2每增加一倍的地球平衡气候敏感性相关的证据,其特征是有效敏感性s。这些证据包括反馈过程理解、历史气候记录和古气候记录。低于2k的S值很难与三条证据线中的任何一条相一致。末次盛冰期的冷却量提供了强有力的证据,证明S值不大于4.5 K。其他证据综合起来也表明这是相对不可能的。我们使用贝叶斯方法为给定所有证据的S生成概率密度函数(PDF),包括对难以量化的不确定性和不同先验的鲁棒性测试。66%的范围是2.6-3.9 K的基线计算,并保持在2.3-4.5 K的稳健性测试;对应的5-95%范围为2.3-4.7 K,以2.0-5.7 K为界(尽管这种高置信度范围应更谨慎地看待)。这表明,通过提高范围的低端,对S的约束比过去评估中报告的更强。之所以会出现这种缩小,是因为三条证据线是一致的,并且被认为在很大程度上是独立的,也因为对理解反馈过程和综合证据的信心增强了。我们确定了进一步缩小S范围的有希望的途径,特别是使用综合模型和过程理解来解决解释过去变化的传统强迫反馈范式的局限性。
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引用次数: 455
A Review on Multiphase Underwater Jets and Plumes: Droplets, Hydrodynamics, and Chemistry 多相水下射流和羽流的研究进展:液滴、流体力学和化学
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-07-20 DOI: 10.1029/2020RG000703
Michel C. Boufadel, Scott Socolofsky, Joseph Katz, Di Yang, Cosan Daskiran, William Dewar

Jets and plumes have been the focus of quantitative investigations since the mid-1950s. These investigations intensified following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in which thousands of tons of oil and natural gas were released into the Gulf of Mexico. This review focuses on plume dynamics that apply to both single-phase and multiphase liquid-in-liquid and liquid plus gas into liquid plumes, including bubble and droplet formation, and heat and mass transfer. Broadly, our work highlights several previously unknown or overlooked aspects of multiphase flow in the deep oceans. Upstream of the jet release, multiphase hydraulics can significantly affect the turbulence, for instance, through churn flow that enhances the turbulence in the free jet, affecting the conditions where bubbles and droplets are formed. Droplet formation was a major focus recently, with experiments covering a range of scales and flow rates of oil and gas at low and high pressure. Detailed observations of droplet formation at the jet-water boundary reveal the formation of compound droplets, which are emulsions of oil and water with implications for mass conservation and mass transfer. At the plume scale, integral models have been adapted to include the complex thermodynamics and chemistry of oil and gas plumes. In parallel, significant advances were made in numerical simulations of multiphase plumes through large eddy simulations by treating the oil and gas either a continuous or discrete phase. Through this work, a vivid picture of the complex droplet, chemical, and hydrodynamic behavior of multiphase plumes in the ocean is emerging.

自20世纪50年代中期以来,喷流和羽流一直是定量研究的焦点。在深水地平线石油泄漏事件发生后,这些调查得到加强,数千吨石油和天然气被释放到墨西哥湾。本文综述了适用于单相和多相液中液和液加气成液羽流的羽流动力学,包括气泡和液滴的形成、传热和传质。总的来说,我们的工作突出了深海多相流的几个以前未知或被忽视的方面。在射流释放的上游,多相液压系统可以显著影响湍流,例如,通过搅拌流增强自由射流中的湍流,影响气泡和液滴形成的条件。液滴形成是最近的一个主要焦点,实验涵盖了一系列规模和低压和高压下的油气流速。在射流-水边界处对液滴形成的详细观察揭示了复合液滴的形成,这是油和水的乳液,具有质量守恒和传递的意义。在羽流尺度上,积分模型已经适应了油气羽流复杂的热力学和化学性质。同时,通过对油气进行连续相或离散相的大涡模拟,在多相流数值模拟方面取得了重大进展。通过这项工作,海洋中多相羽流复杂的液滴、化学和流体动力学行为的生动画面正在出现。
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引用次数: 16
Updated Global Warming Potentials and Radiative Efficiencies of Halocarbons and Other Weak Atmospheric Absorbers 最新的全球变暖潜势和卤代烃和其他弱大气吸收剂的辐射效率
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-07-09 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000691
?. Hodnebrog, B. Aamaas, J. S. Fuglestvedt, G. Marston, G. Myhre, C. J. Nielsen, M. Sandstad, K. P. Shine, T. J. Wallington

Human activity has led to increased atmospheric concentrations of many gases, including halocarbons, and may lead to emissions of many more gases. Many of these gases are, on a per molecule basis, powerful greenhouse gases, although at present-day concentrations their climate effect is in the so-called weak limit (i.e., their effect scales linearly with concentration). We published a comprehensive review of the radiative efficiencies (RE) and global warming potentials (GWP) for around 200 such compounds in 2013 (Hodnebrog et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1002/rog.20013). Here we present updated RE and GWP values for compounds where experimental infrared absorption spectra are available. Updated numbers are based on a revised “Pinnock curve”, which gives RE as a function of wave number, and now also accounts for stratospheric temperature adjustment (Shine & Myhre, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001951). Further updates include the implementation of around 500 absorption spectra additional to those in the 2013 review and new atmospheric lifetimes from the literature (mainly from WMO (2019)). In total, values for 60 of the compounds previously assessed are based on additional absorption spectra, and 42 compounds have REs which differ by >10% from our previous assessment. New RE calculations are presented for more than 400 compounds in addition to the previously assessed compounds, and GWP calculations are presented for a total of around 250 compounds. Present-day radiative forcing due to halocarbons and other weak absorbers is 0.38 [0.33–0.43] W m−2, compared to 0.36 [0.32–0.40] W m−2 in IPCC AR5 (Myhre et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.018), which is about 18% of the current CO2 forcing.

人类活动已导致包括卤代烃在内的许多气体在大气中的浓度增加,并可能导致更多气体的排放。在每个分子的基础上,这些气体中的许多都是强大的温室气体,尽管在目前的浓度下,它们对气候的影响处于所谓的弱极限(即它们的影响与浓度成线性关系)。我们在2013年发表了一篇关于约200种此类化合物的辐射效率(RE)和全球变暖潜能值(GWP)的综合综述(Hodnebrog等人,2013,https://doi.org/10.1002/rog.20013)。在这里,我们给出了可获得实验红外吸收光谱的化合物的最新RE和GWP值。更新的数据是基于修订后的“平诺克曲线”,该曲线将RE作为波数的函数,现在也考虑了平流层温度调整(Shine &Myhre, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS001951)。进一步的更新包括在2013年审查中增加了约500个吸收光谱,并从文献(主要来自WMO(2019))中增加了新的大气寿命。总的来说,之前评估的60种化合物的值是基于额外的吸收光谱,42种化合物的REs与我们之前的评估相差10%。除了先前评估的化合物外,还提出了400多种化合物的新的可再生能源计算方法,并提出了总共约250种化合物的全球变暖潜能值计算方法。目前由卤代烃和其他弱吸收体引起的辐射强迫为0.38 [0.33-0.43]wm - 2,而IPCC AR5中为0.36 [0.32-0.40]wm - 2 (Myhre et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.018),约为当前CO2强迫的18%。
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引用次数: 35
Hydraulic Fracturing-Induced Seismicity 水力压裂诱发的地震活动性
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-06-12 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000695
Ryan Schultz, Robert J. Skoumal, Michael R. Brudzinski, Dave Eaton, Brian Baptie, William Ellsworth

Hydraulic fracturing (HF) is a technique that is used for extracting petroleum resources from impermeable host rocks. In this process, fluid injected under high pressure causes fractures to propagate. This technique has been transformative for the hydrocarbon industry, unlocking otherwise stranded resources; however, environmental concerns make HF controversial. One concern is HF-induced seismicity, since fluids driven under high pressure also have the potential to reactivate faults. Controversy has inevitably followed these HF-induced earthquakes, with economic and human losses from ground shaking at one extreme and moratoriums on resource development at the other. Here, we review the state of knowledge of this category of induced seismicity. We first cover essential background information on HF along with an overview of published induced earthquake cases to date. Expanding on this, we synthesize the common themes and interpret the origin of these commonalities, which include recurrent earthquake swarms, proximity to well bore, rapid response to stimulation, and a paucity of reported cases. Next, we discuss the unanswered questions that naturally arise from these commonalities, leading to potential research themes: consistent recognition of cases, proposed triggering mechanisms, geologically susceptible conditions, identification of operational controls, effective mitigation efforts, and science-informed regulatory management. HF-induced seismicity provides a unique opportunity to better understand and manage earthquake rupture processes; overall, understanding HF-induced earthquakes is important in order to avoid extreme reactions in either direction.

水力压裂(HF)是一种从不透水的储集岩中提取石油资源的技术。在此过程中,在高压下注入的流体导致裂缝扩展。这项技术为油气行业带来了变革,释放了原本被困的资源;然而,环境问题使氢氟酸备受争议。一个担忧是高频诱发的地震活动,因为高压下驱动的流体也有可能重新激活断层。这些由高频引起的地震不可避免地引发了争议,其中一个极端是地面震动造成的经济和人员损失,另一个极端是资源开发的暂停。在这里,我们回顾了这类诱发地震活动的知识状况。我们首先介绍HF的基本背景信息以及迄今为止发表的诱发地震病例的概述。在此基础上,我们综合了共同的主题,并解释了这些共性的起源,包括反复发生的地震群、靠近井眼、对刺激的快速反应以及报告病例的缺乏。接下来,我们将讨论从这些共性中自然产生的未解决的问题,从而引出潜在的研究主题:对案例的一致识别、提出的触发机制、地质易感条件、操作控制的识别、有效的缓解措施以及科学知情的监管管理。高频诱发的地震活动性为更好地理解和管理地震破裂过程提供了独特的机会;总的来说,了解高频诱发的地震对于避免任何方向的极端反应都很重要。
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引用次数: 166
Spaceborne Cloud and Precipitation Radars: Status, Challenges, and Ways Forward 星载云和降水雷达:现状、挑战和前进方向
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-06-10 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000686
Alessandro Battaglia, Pavlos Kollias, Ranvir Dhillon, Richard Roy, Simone Tanelli, Katia Lamer, Mircea Grecu, Matthew Lebsock, Daniel Watters, Kamil Mroz, Gerald Heymsfield, Lihua Li, Kinji Furukawa

Spaceborne radars offer a unique three-dimensional view of the atmospheric components of the Earth's hydrological cycle. Existing and planned spaceborne radar missions provide cloud and precipitation information over the oceans and land difficult to access in remote areas. A careful look into their measurement capabilities indicates considerable gaps that hinder our ability to detect and probe key cloud and precipitation processes. The international community is currently debating how the next generation of spaceborne radars shall enhance current capabilities and address remaining gaps. Part of the discussion is focused on how to best take advantage of recent advancements in radar and space platform technologies while addressing outstanding limitations. First, the observing capabilities and measurement highlights of existing and planned spaceborne radar missions including TRMM, CloudSat, GPM, RainCube, and EarthCARE are reviewed. Then, the limitations of current spaceborne observing systems, with respect to observations of low-level clouds, midlatitude and high-latitude precipitation, and convective motions, are thoroughly analyzed. Finally, the review proposes potential solutions and future research avenues to be explored. Promising paths forward include collecting observations across a gamut of frequency bands tailored to specific scientific objectives, collecting observations using mixtures of pulse lengths to overcome trade-offs in sensitivity and resolution, and flying constellations of miniaturized radars to capture rapidly evolving weather phenomena. This work aims to increase the awareness about existing limitations and gaps in spaceborne radar measurements and to increase the level of engagement of the international community in the discussions for the next generation of spaceborne radar systems.

星载雷达为地球水文循环的大气成分提供了独特的三维视图。现有和计划中的星载雷达任务提供在偏远地区难以获得的海洋和陆地上的云和降水信息。仔细研究它们的测量能力就会发现,存在相当大的差距,阻碍了我们探测和探测关键云和降水过程的能力。国际社会目前正在讨论下一代星载雷达应如何增强现有能力并解决剩余差距。讨论的部分重点是如何最好地利用雷达和空间平台技术的最新进展,同时解决突出的局限性。首先,综述了现有和计划中的星载雷达任务(包括TRMM、CloudSat、GPM、RainCube和EarthCARE)的观测能力和测量亮点。然后,深入分析了现有星载观测系统在低空云层、中纬度和高纬度降水、对流运动观测等方面的局限性。最后,本文提出了可能的解决方案和未来的研究途径。未来有希望的途径包括收集针对特定科学目标量身定制的频带范围的观测数据,使用混合脉冲长度收集观测数据以克服灵敏度和分辨率的权衡,以及飞行星座的小型化雷达以捕捉快速变化的天气现象。这项工作的目的是提高人们对星载雷达测量的现有局限性和差距的认识,并提高国际社会对下一代星载雷达系统的讨论的参与程度。
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引用次数: 68
Ocean Alkalinity, Buffering and Biogeochemical Processes 海洋碱度、缓冲和生物地球化学过程
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2020-06-09 DOI: 10.1029/2019RG000681
Jack J. Middelburg, Karline Soetaert, Mathilde Hagens

Alkalinity, the excess of proton acceptors over donors, plays a major role in ocean chemistry, in buffering and in calcium carbonate precipitation and dissolution. Understanding alkalinity dynamics is pivotal to quantify ocean carbon dioxide uptake during times of global change. Here we review ocean alkalinity and its role in ocean buffering as well as the biogeochemical processes governing alkalinity and pH in the ocean. We show that it is important to distinguish between measurable titration alkalinity and charge balance alkalinity that is used to quantify calcification and carbonate dissolution and needed to understand the impact of biogeochemical processes on components of the carbon dioxide system. A general treatment of ocean buffering and quantification via sensitivity factors is presented and used to link existing buffer and sensitivity factors. The impact of individual biogeochemical processes on ocean alkalinity and pH is discussed and quantified using these sensitivity factors. Processes governing ocean alkalinity on longer time scales such as carbonate compensation, (reversed) silicate weathering, and anaerobic mineralization are discussed and used to derive a close-to-balance ocean alkalinity budget for the modern ocean.

碱度,即质子受体多于质子供体,在海洋化学、缓冲和碳酸钙沉淀和溶解中起着重要作用。了解碱度动态是量化全球变化期间海洋二氧化碳吸收的关键。本文综述了海洋碱度及其在海洋缓冲中的作用,以及控制海洋碱度和pH的生物地球化学过程。我们表明,区分可测量滴定碱度和电荷平衡碱度是很重要的,电荷平衡碱度用于量化钙化和碳酸盐溶解,需要了解生物地球化学过程对二氧化碳系统组分的影响。提出了海洋缓冲的一般处理和通过敏感性因子的量化,并将现有的缓冲和敏感性因子联系起来。利用这些敏感性因子讨论和量化了各个生物地球化学过程对海洋碱度和pH的影响。在较长时间尺度上控制海洋碱度的过程,如碳酸盐补偿、(反向)硅酸盐风化和厌氧矿化进行了讨论,并用于推导现代海洋接近平衡的海洋碱度预算。
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引用次数: 106
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Reviews of Geophysics
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