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Mechanisms and Impacts of Earth System Tipping Elements 地球系统引爆要素的机制与影响
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2023-02-15 DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000757
Seaver Wang, Adrianna Foster, Elizabeth A. Lenz, John D. Kessler, Julienne C. Stroeve, Liana O. Anderson, Merritt Turetsky, Richard Betts, Sijia Zou, Wei Liu, William R. Boos, Zeke Hausfather

Tipping elements are components of the Earth system which may respond nonlinearly to anthropogenic climate change by transitioning toward substantially different long-term states upon passing key thresholds or “tipping points.” In some cases, such changes could produce additional greenhouse gas emissions or radiative forcing that could compound global warming. Improved understanding of tipping elements is important for predicting future climate risks and their impacts. Here we review mechanisms, predictions, impacts, and knowledge gaps associated with 10 notable Earth system components proposed to be tipping elements. We evaluate which tipping elements are approaching critical thresholds and whether shifts may manifest rapidly or over longer timescales. Some tipping elements have a higher risk of crossing tipping points under middle-of-the-road emissions pathways and will possibly affect major ecosystems, climate patterns, and/or carbon cycling within the 21st century. However, literature assessing different emissions scenarios indicates a strong potential to reduce impacts associated with many tipping elements through climate change mitigation. The studies synthesized in our review suggest most tipping elements do not possess the potential for abrupt future change within years, and some proposed tipping elements may not exhibit tipping behavior, rather responding more predictably and directly to the magnitude of forcing. Nevertheless, uncertainties remain associated with many tipping elements, highlighting an acute need for further research and modeling to better constrain risks.

引爆要素是地球系统的组成部分,在通过关键阈值或“引爆点”后,通过向本质上不同的长期状态过渡,可能对人为气候变化作出非线性反应。在某些情况下,这种变化可能会产生额外的温室气体排放或辐射强迫,从而加剧全球变暖。提高对引爆因素的理解对于预测未来气候风险及其影响非常重要。在这里,我们回顾了机制、预测、影响和与10个重要的地球系统组成部分相关的知识差距,这些组成部分被认为是引爆因素。我们评估哪些引爆因素正在接近临界阈值,以及变化是否会迅速显现或在更长的时间尺度上显现。在中间排放路径下,一些引爆因素跨越引爆点的风险更高,并可能在21世纪影响主要生态系统、气候模式和/或碳循环。然而,评估不同排放情景的文献表明,通过减缓气候变化,有很大的潜力减少与许多引爆因素相关的影响。我们综述中综合的研究表明,大多数引爆因素在未来几年内不具备突然变化的潜力,一些提出的引爆因素可能不会表现出引爆行为,而是对强迫的大小做出更可预测和直接的反应。然而,不确定性仍然与许多引爆因素有关,突出了进一步研究和建模以更好地约束风险的迫切需要。
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引用次数: 11
Spatial and Temporal Quantification of Subaerial Volcanism From 1980 to 2019: Solid Products, Masses, and Average Eruptive Rates 1980 - 2019年陆基火山活动的时空量化:固体产物、质量和平均喷发速率
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2023-02-10 DOI: 10.1029/2022RG000783
Federico Galetto, Matthew E. Pritchard, Adrian J. Hornby, Esteban Gazel, Natalie M. Mahowald

Volcanism is one of the main mechanisms transferring mass and energy between the interior of the Earth and the Earth's surface. However, the global mass flux of lava, volcanic ash and explosive pyroclastic deposits is not well constrained. Here we review published estimates of the mass of the erupted products from 1980 to 2019 by a global compilation. We identified 1,064 magmatic eruptions that occurred between 1980 and 2019 from the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program database. For each eruption, we reported both the total erupted mass and its partitioning into the different volcanic products. Using this data set, we quantified the temporal and spatial evolution of subaerial volcanism and its products from 1980 to 2019 at a global and regional scale. The mass of magma erupted in each analyzed decade ranged from 1.1–4.9 × 1013 kg. Lava is the main subaerial erupted product representing ∼57% of the total erupted mass of magma. The products related to the biggest eruptions (Magnitude ≥6), with long recurrence times, can temporarily make explosive products more abundant than lava (e.g., decade 1990–1999). Twenty-three volcanoes produced ∼72% of the total mass, while two different sets of 15 volcanoes erupted >70% of the total mass of either effusive or explosive products. At a global scale, the 10 and 40-year average eruptive rates calculated from 1980 to 2019 have the same magnitude as the long-term average eruptive rates (from thousand to millions of years), because in both cases rates are scaled for times comparable to the recurrence time of the biggest eruptions occurred.

火山活动是地球内部和地球表面之间传递质量和能量的主要机制之一。然而,熔岩、火山灰和爆炸性火山碎屑沉积物的全球质量通量并没有得到很好的约束。在这里,我们回顾了一项全球汇编对1980年至2019年喷发产物质量的公布估计。我们从史密森尼全球火山活动计划数据库中确定了1980年至2019年间发生的1064次岩浆喷发。对于每次喷发,我们都报告了总喷发质量及其划分为不同的火山产物。利用该数据集,在全球和区域尺度上量化了1980 - 2019年陆基火山活动及其产物的时空演化。在分析的每个十年中,岩浆喷发的质量在1.1-4.9 × 1013 kg之间。熔岩是主要的陆上喷发产物,占岩浆总喷发质量的57%。与最大的喷发(≥6级)相关的产物,具有较长的复发时间,可以暂时使爆炸产物比熔岩更丰富(如1990-1999年)。23座火山产生了约72%的总质量,而两组不同的15座火山喷发出的喷涌物或爆炸性产物占总质量的70%。在全球范围内,从1980年到2019年计算的10年和40年平均喷发率与长期平均喷发率(从数千年到数百万年)具有相同的量级,因为在这两种情况下,喷发率都是按与最大喷发发生的复发时间相当的倍数进行缩放的。
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引用次数: 4
Satellite Remote Sensing of Global Land Surface Temperature: Definition, Methods, Products, and Applications 全球地表温度卫星遥感:定义、方法、产品和应用
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-12-24 DOI: 10.1029/2022RG000777
Zhao-Liang Li, Hua Wu, Si-Bo Duan, Wei Zhao, Huazhong Ren, Xiangyang Liu, Pei Leng, Ronglin Tang, Xin Ye, Jinshun Zhu, Yingwei Sun, Menglin Si, Meng Liu, Jiahao Li, Xia Zhang, Guofei Shang, Bo-Hui Tang, Guangjian Yan, Chenghu Zhou

Land surface temperature (LST) is a crucial parameter that reflects land–atmosphere interaction and has thus attracted wide interest from geoscientists. Owing to the rapid development of Earth observation technologies, remotely sensed LST is playing an increasingly essential role in various fields. This review aims to summarize the progress in LST estimation algorithms and accelerate its further applications. Thus, we briefly review the most-used thermal infrared (TIR) LST estimation algorithms. More importantly, this review provides a comprehensive collection of the widely used TIR-based LST products and offers important insights into the uncertainties in these products with respect to different land cover conditions via a systematic intercomparison analysis of several representative products. In addition to the discussion on product accuracy, we address problems related to the spatial discontinuity, spatiotemporal incomparability, and short time span of current LST products by introducing the most effective methods. With the aim of overcoming these challenges in available LST products, much progress has been made in developing spatiotemporal seamless LST data, which significantly promotes the successful applications of these products in the field of surface evapotranspiration and soil moisture estimation, agriculture drought monitoring, thermal environment monitoring, thermal anomaly monitoring, and climate change. Overall, this review encompasses the most recent advances in TIR-based LST and the state-of-the-art of applications of LST products at various spatial and temporal scales, identifies critical further research needs and directions to advance and optimize retrieval methods, and promotes the application of LST to improve the understanding of surface thermal dynamics and exchanges.

地表温度是反映陆-气相互作用的重要参数,引起了地球科学家的广泛关注。随着对地观测技术的快速发展,遥感地表温度在各个领域发挥着越来越重要的作用。本文综述了LST估计算法的研究进展,并对其进一步应用进行了展望。因此,我们简要回顾了最常用的热红外(TIR) LST估计算法。更重要的是,本文提供了广泛使用的基于tir的LST产品的全面集合,并通过对几个代表性产品的系统比较分析,为这些产品在不同土地覆盖条件下的不确定性提供了重要见解。在对产品精度进行讨论的基础上,通过引入最有效的方法,解决了当前LST产品存在的空间不连续、时空不可比较性和时间跨度短等问题。为了克服现有地表温度产品面临的这些挑战,在开发时空无缝地表温度数据方面取得了很大进展,极大地促进了这些产品在地表蒸散发和土壤水分估算、农业干旱监测、热环境监测、热异常监测和气候变化等领域的成功应用。总体而言,本文综述了基于红外光谱的地表温度研究的最新进展和地表温度产品在不同时空尺度上的应用现状,确定了进一步研究的关键需求和方向,以推进和优化地表温度的检索方法,并促进地表温度的应用,以提高对地表热动力学和交换的理解。
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引用次数: 40
Secular Evolution of Continents and the Earth System 大陆与地球系统的长期演化
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-12-07 DOI: 10.1029/2022RG000789
Peter A. Cawood, Priyadarshi Chowdhury, Jacob A. Mulder, Chris J. Hawkesworth, Fabio A. Capitanio, Prasanna M. Gunawardana, Oliver Nebel

Understanding of secular evolution of the Earth system is based largely on the rock and mineral archive preserved in the continental lithosphere. Based on the frequency and range of accessible data preserved in this record, we divide the secular evolution into seven phases: (a) “Proto-Earth” (ca. 4.57–4.45 Ga); (b) “Primordial Earth” (ca. 4.45–3.80 Ga); (c) “Primitive Earth” (ca. 3.8–3.2 Ga); (d) “Juvenile Earth” (ca. 3.2–2.5 Ga); (e) “Youthful Earth” (ca. 2.5–1.8 Ga); (f) “Middle Earth” (ca. 1.8–0.8 Ga); and (g) “Contemporary Earth” (since ca. 0.8 Ga). Integrating this record with knowledge of secular cooling of the mantle and lithospheric rheology constrains the changes in the tectonic modes that operated through Earth history. Initial accretion and the Moon forming impact during the Proto-Earth phase likely resulted in a magma ocean. The solidification of this magma ocean produced the Primordial Earth lithosphere, which preserves evidence for intra-lithospheric reworking of a rigid lid, but which also likely experienced partial recycling through mantle overturn and meteorite impacts. Evidence for craton formation and stabilization from ca. 3.8 to 2.5 Ga, during the Primitive and Juvenile Earth phases, likely reflects some degree of coupling between the convecting mantle and a lithosphere initially weak enough to favor an internally deformable, squishy-lid behavior, which led to a transition to more rigid, plate like, behavior by the end of the early Earth phases. The Youthful to Contemporary phases of Earth, all occurred within a plate tectonic framework with changes between phases linked to lithospheric behavior and the supercontinent cycle.

对地球系统长期演化的认识主要是基于保存在大陆岩石圈中的岩石和矿物档案。根据该记录中保存的可获得资料的频率和范围,我们将其长期演化分为7个阶段:(a)“原始地球”(约4.57-4.45 Ga);(b)“原始地球”(约4.45-3.80 Ga);(c)“原始地球”(约3.8-3.2 Ga);(d)“幼年地球”(约3.2-2.5 Ga);(e)“青年地球”(约2.5-1.8 Ga);(f)“中土世界”(约1.8-0.8 Ga);(g)“当代地球”(约0.8 Ga以来)。将这一记录与地幔长期冷却和岩石圈流变学的知识相结合,限制了贯穿地球历史的构造模式的变化。原始地球阶段的初始吸积和月球形成的冲击可能导致了岩浆海洋。岩浆海洋的凝固产生了原始地球岩石圈,它保留了岩石圈内部刚性盖子改造的证据,但也可能通过地幔翻转和陨石撞击经历了部分再循环。克拉通形成和稳定的证据大约在3.8至2.5 Ga之间,在原始和青少年地球阶段,可能反映了对流地幔和岩石圈之间的某种程度的耦合,最初足够弱,有利于内部变形,软盖行为,导致过渡到更刚性,板块样的行为,到早期地球阶段结束。地球的年轻到现代阶段,都发生在板块构造框架内,阶段之间的变化与岩石圈行为和超大陆旋回有关。
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引用次数: 25
Comparison and Synthesis of Sea-Level and Deep-Sea Temperature Variations Over the Past 40 Million Years 过去4000万年海平面和深海温度变化的比较与综合
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-11-06 DOI: 10.1029/2022RG000775
Eelco J. Rohling, Gavin L. Foster, Thomas M. Gernon, Katharine M. Grant, David Heslop, Fiona D. Hibbert, Andrew P. Roberts, Jimin Yu

Global ice volume (sea level) and deep-sea temperature are key measures of Earth's climatic state. We synthesize evidence for multi-centennial to millennial ice-volume and deep-sea temperature variations over the past 40 million years, which encompass the early glaciation of Antarctica at ∼34 million years ago (Ma), the end of the Middle Miocene Climate Optimum, and the descent into bipolar glaciation from ∼3.4 Ma. We compare different sea-level and deep-water temperature reconstructions to build a resource for validating long-term numerical model-based approaches. We present: (a) a new template synthesis of ice-volume and deep-sea temperature variations for the past 5.3 million years; (b) an extended template for the interval between 5.3 and 40 Ma; and (c) a discussion of uncertainties and limitations. We highlight key issues associated with glacial state changes in the geological record from 40 Ma to present that require attention in further research. These include offsets between calibration-sensitive versus thermodynamically guided deep-sea paleothermometry proxy measurements; a conundrum related to the magnitudes of sea-level and deep-sea temperature change at the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 Ma; a discrepancy in deep-sea temperature levels during the Middle Miocene; and a hitherto unquantified non-linear reduction of glacial deep-sea temperatures through the past 3.4 million years toward a near-freezing deep-sea temperature asymptote, while sea level stepped down in a more uniform manner. Uncertainties in proxy-based reconstructions hinder further distinction of “reality” among reconstructions. It seems more promising to further narrow this using three-dimensional ice-sheet models with realistic ice-climate-ocean-topography-lithosphere coupling, as computational capacities improve.

全球冰量(海平面)和深海温度是地球气候状态的关键指标。我们综合了过去4000万年来的多世纪至千年冰量和深海温度变化的证据,其中包括南极洲在~ 3400万年前(Ma)的早期冰川期,中新世中期气候最佳期结束,以及从~ 3.4 Ma开始进入双极冰川期。我们比较了不同的海平面和深水温度重建,为验证基于长期数值模型的方法建立了一个资源。我们提出:(a)过去530万年冰量和深海温度变化的新模板合成;(b) 5.3至40 Ma区间的扩展模板;(c)对不确定性和局限性的讨论。我们强调了从40 Ma到现在的地质记录中与冰川状态变化相关的关键问题,这些问题需要进一步研究。这包括校准敏感与热动力引导的深海古温度表代用测量之间的偏移;34 Ma始新世-渐新世过渡时期海平面和深海温度变化幅度的难题;中新世中期深海温度水平的差异;在过去的340万年里,冰川深海温度呈非线性下降,迄今尚未量化,逐渐接近冰点,而海平面则以更均匀的方式下降。基于代理的重建中的不确定性阻碍了重建中“现实”的进一步区分。随着计算能力的提高,使用具有真实冰-气候-海洋-地形-岩石圈耦合的三维冰盖模型进一步缩小这一范围似乎更有希望。
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引用次数: 2
The International Reference Ionosphere Model: A Review and Description of an Ionospheric Benchmark 国际电离层参考模型:电离层基准的回顾和描述
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-09-28 DOI: 10.1029/2022RG000792
Dieter Bilitza, Michael Pezzopane, Vladimir Truhlik, David Altadill, Bodo W. Reinisch, Alessio Pignalberi

This paper is a review of the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) project and model. IRI is recognized as the official standard for the Earth's ionosphere by the International Standardization Organization, the International Union of Radio Science, the Committee on Space Research, and the European Cooperation for Space Standardization. As requested by these organizations, IRI is an empirical (data-based) model representing the primary ionospheric parameters based on the long data record that exists from ground and space observations of the ionosphere. The core model describes monthly averages of the electron density, electron temperature, ion temperature, and ion composition globally in the altitude range from 60 to 2,000 km. Over time additional parameters were added in response to requests from the user community, this includes the equatorial ion drift, the occurrence probability of spread-F and of an F1 layer, auroral boundaries and the electron content from the bottom of the ionosphere to user-specified altitude. IRI has undergone extensive validations and is used for a wide range of applications in science, engineering, and education. This review is the result of many requests we have received for a comprehensive description of the model. It is also meant as a guide for users who are interested in a deeper understanding of the model architecture and its mathematical formalism.

本文对国际参考电离层(IRI)项目和模型进行了综述。IRI被国际标准化组织、国际无线电科学联盟、空间研究委员会和欧洲空间标准化合作组织公认为地球电离层的官方标准。应这些组织的要求,IRI是一种经验(基于数据的)模型,根据地面和空间观测电离层的长期数据记录,代表电离层的主要参数。核心模型描述了海拔60至2000公里范围内全球电子密度、电子温度、离子温度和离子成分的月平均值。随着时间的推移,根据用户群体的要求,增加了额外的参数,包括赤道离子漂移、扩散f和F1层发生的概率、极光边界和从电离层底部到用户指定高度的电子含量。IRI经过了广泛的验证,在科学、工程和教育领域得到了广泛的应用。本次审查是我们收到的对该模型进行全面描述的许多请求的结果。对于有兴趣深入了解模型体系结构及其数学形式化的用户来说,它也是一个指南。
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引用次数: 39
Beyond Carbon: The Contributions of South American Tropical Humid and Subhumid Forests to Ecosystem Services 碳之外:南美热带湿润和半湿润森林对生态系统服务的贡献
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-09-12 DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000766
L. S. Borma, M. H. Costa, H. R. da Rocha, J. Arieira, N. C. C. Nascimento, C. Jaramillo-Giraldo, G. Ambrosio, R. G. Carneiro, M. Venzon, A. F. Neto, R. van der Hoff, B. F. A. Oliveira, R. Raj?o, C. A. Nobre

Tropical forests are recognized for their role in providing diverse ecosystem services (ESs), with carbon uptake the best recognized. The capacity of tropical forests to provide ESs is strongly linked to their enormous biodiversity. However, causal relationships between biodiversity and ESs are poorly understood. This may be because biodiversity is often translated into species richness. Here, we argue that focusing on multiple attributes of biodiversity—structure, composition, and function—will make relationships between biodiversity and ESs clearer. In this review, we discuss the ecological processes behind ESs from tropical humid and subhumid forests of South America. Our main goal is to understand the links between the ESs and those three biodiversity attributes. While supporting and regulating services relate more closely to forest structure and function, provisioning services relate more closely to forest composition and function, and cultural services are more related to structure and composition attributes. In this sense, ESs from subhumid forests (savannas) differ from those provided by the Amazon Forest, although both ecosystems are recognized as harboring tremendous biodiversity. Given this, if anthropogenic drivers of change promote a shift in the Amazon Forest toward savanna—the savannization hypothesis—the types of services provided will change, especially climate regulating services. This review emphasizes the importance of deeply understanding ecosystem structure, composition, and function to better understand the services ecosystems provide. Understanding that anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity occur through these three main attributes, it becomes easier to anticipate how humans will impact ESs.

热带森林在提供多种生态系统服务(ESs)方面的作用得到了公认,其中碳吸收得到了最好的认可。热带森林提供生态环境的能力与其巨大的生物多样性密切相关。然而,生物多样性与生态环境之间的因果关系尚不清楚。这可能是因为生物多样性常常被转化为物种丰富度。在此,我们认为关注生物多样性的多个属性——结构、组成和功能——将使生物多样性与生态环境之间的关系更加清晰。在这篇综述中,我们讨论了来自南美洲热带湿润和半湿润森林的ESs背后的生态过程。我们的主要目标是了解ESs与这三个生物多样性属性之间的联系。支持和调节服务与森林结构和功能的关系更密切,供应服务与森林组成和功能的关系更密切,文化服务与结构和组成属性的关系更密切。从这个意义上说,半湿润森林(稀树草原)提供的生态系统不同于亚马逊森林提供的生态系统,尽管这两个生态系统都被认为蕴藏着巨大的生物多样性。考虑到这一点,如果人为的变化驱动因素促使亚马逊森林向稀树草原转移——即稀树草原化假说——所提供的服务类型将发生变化,尤其是气候调节服务。本文强调了深入了解生态系统的结构、组成和功能对更好地理解生态系统所提供的服务的重要性。了解人类对生物多样性的影响是通过这三个主要属性发生的,就更容易预测人类将如何影响生态系统。
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引用次数: 9
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Subsurface Environments: Occurrence, Fate, Transport, and Research Prospect 地下环境中的全氟和多氟烷基物质(PFAS):发生、命运、迁移和研究前景
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-08-06 DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000765
Xueyan Lyu, Feng Xiao, Chongyang Shen, Jingjing Chen, Chang Min Park, Yuanyuan Sun, Markus Flury, Dengjun Wang

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), also known as “forever chemicals,” are manmade chemicals that have been increasingly detected in various geological settings since the early 2000s. The soil and subsurface environments are the geological media commonly affected by PFAS. We conducted a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed articles published from 2010 through 2022 concerning the fate and transport of PFAS in subsurface environments. This review is organized into different subsections, covering the basics of PFAS properties and how they affect the occurrence, fate, and transport of PFAS, the fundamental processes affecting subsurface transport and fate of PFAS, and mathematical models for describing and predicting PFAS transport behaviors. Mechanisms governing PFAS transport in the subsurface environment, including the sorption of PFAS at the air-water interface, solid-water interface, and nonaqueous phase liquids-water interface, were explored in detail. Challenges and future research priorities are identified to better mitigate the global challenges of PFAS contamination.

全氟烷基和多氟烷基物质(PFASs)也被称为“永久化学品”,是自21世纪初以来在各种地质环境中越来越多地检测到的人造化学品。土壤和地下环境是受PFAS影响最大的地质介质。我们对2010年至2022年发表的关于PFAS在地下环境中的命运和运输的同行评议文章进行了全面审查。本文主要介绍了PFAS的基本性质及其对PFAS的发生、命运和迁移的影响,影响PFAS地下迁移和迁移的基本过程,以及描述和预测PFAS迁移行为的数学模型。详细探讨了PFAS在地下环境中的运移机制,包括PFAS在空气-水界面、固-水界面和非水相液-水界面的吸附。确定了挑战和未来的研究重点,以更好地减轻PFAS污染的全球挑战。
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引用次数: 11
Achievements and Prospects of Global Broadband Seismographic Networks After 30 Years of Continuous Geophysical Observations 30年连续地球物理观测后全球宽带地震台网的成就与展望
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-07-19 DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000749
A. T. Ringler, R. E. Anthony, R. C. Aster, C. J. Ammon, S. Arrowsmith, H. Benz, C. Ebeling, A. Frassetto, W.-Y. Kim, P. Koelemeijer, H. C. P. Lau, V. Leki?, J. P. Montagner, P. G. Richards, D. P. Schaff, M. Vallée, W. Yeck

Global seismographic networks (GSNs) emerged during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, facilitated by seminal international developments in theory, technology, instrumentation, and data exchange. The mid- to late-twentieth century saw the creation of the World-Wide Standardized Seismographic Network (1961) and International Deployment of Accelerometers (1976), which advanced global geographic coverage as seismometer bandwidth increased greatly allowing for the recording of the Earth's principal seismic spectrum. The modern era of global observations and rapid data access began during the 1980s, and notably included the inception of the GEOSCOPE initiative (1982) and GSN (1988). Through continual improvements, GEOSCOPE and the GSN have realized near-real time recording of ground motion with state-of-art data quality, dynamic range, and timing precision to encompass 180 seismic stations, many in very remote locations. Data from GSNs are increasingly integrated with other geophysical data (e.g., space geodesy, infrasound and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar). Globally distributed seismic data are critical to resolving crust, mantle, and core structure; illuminating features of the plate tectonic and mantle convection system; rapid characterization of earthquakes; identification of potential tsunamis; global nuclear test verification; and provide sensitive proxies for environmental changes. As the global geosciences community continues to advance our understanding of Earth structure and processes controlling elastic wave propagation, GSN infrastructure offers a springboard to realize increasingly multi-instrument geophysical observatories. Here, we review the historical, scientific, and monitoring heritage of GSNs, summarize key discoveries, and discuss future associated opportunities for Earth Science.

全球地震台网(GSNs)出现于19世纪末和20世纪初,得益于理论、技术、仪器和数据交换方面的开创性国际发展。20世纪中后期建立了全球标准化地震台网(1961年)和国际加速度计部署(1976年),随着地震仪带宽的大大增加,可以记录地球的主要地震频谱,它们扩大了全球地理覆盖范围。全球观测和快速数据获取的现代时代始于20世纪80年代,主要包括GEOSCOPE倡议(1982年)和GSN(1988年)的启动。通过不断改进,GEOSCOPE和GSN已经实现了近实时的地面运动记录,具有最先进的数据质量,动态范围和定时精度,涵盖180个地震站,其中许多位于非常偏远的地区。来自gsn的数据越来越多地与其他地球物理数据(例如,空间大地测量、次声和干涉合成孔径雷达)相结合。全球分布的地震数据对于解析地壳、地幔和地核结构至关重要;板块构造与地幔对流系统的启发性特征地震的快速表征;识别潜在海啸;全球核试验核查;并为环境变化提供敏感的代理。随着全球地球科学界对地球结构和控制弹性波传播过程的理解不断加深,GSN基础设施为实现越来越多的多仪器地球物理观测提供了跳板。在这里,我们回顾了GSNs的历史、科学和监测遗产,总结了关键发现,并讨论了地球科学未来的相关机会。
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引用次数: 14
Climate Change and Weather Extremes in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East 地中海东部和中东的气候变化和极端天气
IF 25.2 1区 地球科学 Q1 Earth and Planetary Sciences Pub Date : 2022-06-28 DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000762
G. Zittis, M. Almazroui, P. Alpert, P. Ciais, W. Cramer, Y. Dahdal, M. Fnais, D. Francis, P. Hadjinicolaou, F. Howari, A. Jrrar, D. G. Kaskaoutis, M. Kulmala, G. Lazoglou, N. Mihalopoulos, X. Lin, Y. Rudich, J. Sciare, G. Stenchikov, E. Xoplaki, J. Lelieveld

Observation-based and modeling studies have identified the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East (EMME) region as a prominent climate change hotspot. While several initiatives have addressed the impacts of climate change in parts of the EMME, here we present an updated assessment, covering a wide range of timescales, phenomena and future pathways. Our assessment is based on a revised analysis of recent observations and projections and an extensive overview of the recent scientific literature on the causes and effects of regional climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions in the EMME are growing rapidly, surpassing those of the European Union, hence contributing significantly to climate change. Over the past half-century and especially during recent decades, the EMME has warmed significantly faster than other inhabited regions. At the same time, changes in the hydrological cycle have become evident. The observed recent temperature increase of about 0.45°C per decade is projected to continue, although strong global greenhouse gas emission reductions could moderate this trend. In addition to projected changes in mean climate conditions, we call attention to extreme weather events with potentially disruptive societal impacts. These include the strongly increasing severity and duration of heatwaves, droughts and dust storms, as well as torrential rain events that can trigger flash floods. Our review is complemented by a discussion of atmospheric pollution and land-use change in the region, including urbanization, desertification and forest fires. Finally, we identify sectors that may be critically affected and formulate adaptation and research recommendations toward greater resilience of the EMME region to climate change.

基于观测和模拟的研究已经确定东地中海和中东(EMME)地区是一个突出的气候变化热点。虽然一些倡议已经解决了气候变化对EMME部分地区的影响,但在这里,我们提出了一项更新的评估,涵盖了广泛的时间尺度、现象和未来路径。我们的评估是基于对最近观测和预测的修订分析,以及对最近关于区域气候变化的原因和影响的科学文献的广泛概述。EMME的温室气体排放量正在迅速增长,超过欧盟,因此对气候变化做出了重大贡献。在过去的半个世纪里,特别是近几十年来,EMME的变暖速度明显快于其他有人居住的地区。与此同时,水文循环的变化也变得明显。最近观测到的每十年约0.45°C的温度上升趋势预计将继续,尽管全球温室气体的大力减排可能会减缓这一趋势。除了预测平均气候条件的变化外,我们还呼吁关注具有潜在破坏性社会影响的极端天气事件。其中包括热浪、干旱和沙尘暴的严重程度和持续时间急剧增加,以及可能引发山洪暴发的暴雨事件。我们的回顾还包括对该地区大气污染和土地利用变化的讨论,包括城市化、荒漠化和森林火灾。最后,我们确定了可能受到严重影响的部门,并制定了适应和研究建议,以提高EMME地区对气候变化的适应能力。
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引用次数: 65
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Reviews of Geophysics
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