International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow最新文献

{"title":"Design and thermal-humidity characteristics of a thermoelectric cooling unit","authors":"Ding Wang,&nbsp;Wenqian Zhang,&nbsp;Leyao Chu,&nbsp;Zun Liu,&nbsp;Limei Shen","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110168","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110168","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In recent years, advancements in thermoelectric materials have substantially increased the application potential of thermoelectric cooling technology. As the primary energy conversion unit in thermoelectric cooling systems, the performance of the thermoelectric cooling unit (TECU) has a direct impact on system efficiency and reliability. However, current designs of TECU are limited owing to a lack of standardized procedures. Moreover, existing research has primarily focused on heat transfer processes, while the impact of condensation from humid air on the cold-side during practical operation remains largely unexplored. This study proposes a systematic design process based on rated cooling capacity and designs a TECU with a cooling capacity of 500 W. Subsequently, a coupled simulation model integrating “thermoelectric effects–heat transfer–heat-mass conversion” is developed to investigate the thermal and humidity characteristics of thermoelectric cooling performance. Simulation results show a linear relationship between temperature and cooling performance. A 2 ℃ increase in cold-side temperature increases cooling capacity by 32.3 W, while an equivalent increase in hot-side temperature reduces it by 26.2 W. By contrast, the effect of humidity is non-linear and complex. Humidity only affects the cooling performance once it reaches the condensation threshold. The condensation phenomenon improves heat transfer efficiency and increases cooling capacity by an average of 64.3 W. Under varying temperature and humidity working conditions, the TECU maintains a constant cooling capacity of 500 W by adjusting the TECU input current. Notably, the coefficient of performance improves by 61.0 % under high-humidity conditions, reaching 1.41. This study provides valuable theoretical insights for the design and application of TECU.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"118 ","pages":"Article 110168"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145692370","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The influence of different wall film models on the simulation of spray humidification process","authors":"Kong Mingjuan ,&nbsp;Zhu Tong ,&nbsp;Wang Lu ,&nbsp;Chi Ying","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110162","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110162","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the role of wall film models in the simulation of spray humidification processes, focusing on their impact on fluid dynamics and heat transfer phenomena. The research explores the application of wall film models and their optimization parameters, as well as the differences in spray droplet motion, evaporation, and distribution. A comprehensive analysis is conducted on the characteristics and applicability of wall film models, including the Lagrangian Wall Film (LWF) model within the discrete phase model, the Eulerian Wall Film (EWF) model, and the EWF coupled with the Volume of Fluid (VOF) model, from both mathematical and physical perspectives. Numerical simulation experiments are employed to compare the effects of these models on the evaporation rate, distribution pattern, and humidification effectiveness of spray droplets. Additionally, the performance under identical conditions with varying spray droplet sizes is examined. The study concludes with a synthesis of the advantages and disadvantages of each model, offering a theoretical foundation and technical support for the enhancement of spray humidification processes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"118 ","pages":"Article 110162"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145623273","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Unveiling the energy transfer paradox in electric arc furnace long arcs: a thermal-flow field synergy perspective","authors":"Xuan-Kai Zhang ,&nbsp;Xu Cheng ,&nbsp;Zuan-Si Cai ,&nbsp;Tian-Run Yang ,&nbsp;Mu Du ,&nbsp;Zi-Zhen Lin","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110153","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110153","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this study, a validated coupled mathematical model integrating electromagnetics, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics is developed, innovatively employing the thermal-flow field synergy principle to diagnose the LA’s performance. According to the conclusion, the LA is an intrinsically inefficient system is firstly revealed; despite a high-energy core concentrated near the cathode, the thermal-flow synergy angle (<em>β</em>) of LA in the furnace is remarkably high, indicating poor convective heat transfer and substantial energy loss. Consequently, the baseline energy efficiency (<em>η</em>) is only 29.2 % under typical condition of electrode current (<em>I</em>) = 12.5 kA and arc length (<em>L</em>) = 200 mm. The conventional control strategies, adjusting <em>I</em> or <em>L</em>, are then demonstrated, which leads to a fundamental power-efficiency paradox. Increasing <em>I</em> or <em>L</em> boosts arc power (<em>Q</em>_Arc) but invariably decreases <em>η</em>. The peak <em>Q</em>_Arc of 3.8 MW (at 15.0 kA, 250 mm) and the peak <em>η</em> of 33.4 % (at 10.0 kA, 150 mm) occur at opposite ends of the operational spectrum, defining a clear performance trade-off. To transcend this impasse, the “Ordered Heat Transfer” concept is proposed in this paper for LA in EAF as a new paradigm, aimed at simultaneously enhancing <em>Q</em>_Arc and <em>η</em> by strategically managing convective energy pathways. Finally, multiple regression equations are established to accurately predict anode energy fluxes, providing a valuable tool for industrial process optimization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110153"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620673","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multi-physics field simulation study on in-situ pyrolysis characteristics of fractured tar-rich coal seam","authors":"Hong Liu,&nbsp;Zibo Huang,&nbsp;Mingjie Li,&nbsp;Jinjia Wei","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110155","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110155","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In-situ pyrolysis of tar-rich coal refers to the process of extracting tar and gas through underground in-situ modification and heating of coal seams. This technology offers advantages such as a small land footprint, a wide range of resource extraction depths, and no surface subsidence. It represents a new clean and low-carbon utilization technology for coal resources. In this study, thermogravimetric experiment was firstly conducted to obtain the kinetic parameters of coal sample. Subsequently, the pyrolysis effects with and without hydraulic fractures were compared. And then, the in-situ pyrolysis characteristics of a 10 m × 10 m square coal seam under multi-physics field coupling with different hydraulic fracture parameters were investigated by numerical simulation. The effects of varying hydraulic fracture numbers and spacings on the flow heat transfer, structural evolution and product generation performance were analyzed. The results reveal that hydraulic fracturing can notably achieve higher permeability of coal seam, enhance the flow diversion capacity, produce more tar in the same period of time. When the coal seam contains three hydraulic fractures, it undergoes complete transformation earlier than that with one or five hydraulic fractures. The results suggests that more hydraulic fractures do not necessarily produce better outcomes, which is precisely conducive to balancing benefits and costs. All conditions stimulated with hydraulic fractures produce more than 8000 kg of tar within one year. At the beginning of pyrolysis, the smaller hydraulic fracture spacing leads to a relatively rapid increase in every indicator. With the progress of pyrolysis, the larger the hydraulic fracture spacing, the more these performance indicators improve, indicating that a larger fracture spacing facilitates rapid pyrolysis, fluid transportation, heat exchange and products output. The research results can provide a reference for the underground pyrolysis scheme of coal seams with fractures and offer guidance for the efficient and sustainable utilization of tar-rich coal.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110155"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620688","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of behavioural modification techniques on particle-laden turbulent pipe flows","authors":"B. Wolde,&nbsp;L.F. Mortimer,&nbsp;M. Fairweather","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110144","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110144","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this study, particle-laden turbulent pipe flows are predicted using direct numerical simulation of the fluid flow in combination with Lagrangian particle tracking and a deterministic energy-based particle agglomeration model, with a particular focus on predicting and elucidating the dynamics of particle–particle interactions. The models used, which were developed and validated in the present work, enhance our understanding of these flows, particularly in regards to the processes which lead to particle collision and agglomeration. The energy-based agglomeration technique is used together with four-way coupling between the particles and the fluid flow to predict particle aggregation due to collision interactions within the flow. Additionally, the impact of behavioural modification techniques, which influence particle dispersion, agglomeration and ultimately particle deposition, is investigated by varying influential parameters such as the temperature and Reynolds number of the flow, and the reduced surface potential, inverse Debye length, Hamaker constant and coefficient of restitution which govern particle–particle interactions. It is concluded that electric double layer repulsion exerts little influence on collision and agglomeration behaviour, attributable to the particle diameters examined being higher in comparison to the effective range of these forces. The study further demonstrates that the restitution coefficient has a significant influence on the behaviour of particle agglomeration, with a decrease in the coefficient resulting in increased aggregation rates. Hamaker constant and Reynolds number variations also both lead to major impacts on particle–particle interaction, with collision and agglomeration events occurring more frequently for increased Hamaker constant and Reynolds number.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110144"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620160","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of explicit algebraic LES wall models using consistent CFD-driven Machine Learning","authors":"Arthur Shiniti Cato,&nbsp;Melissa Kozul,&nbsp;Richard Sandberg","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110157","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110157","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A new consistent Machine Learning methodology to develop explicit algebraic wall models for Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is presented. Crucially, the wall models are trained using quantities from wall-modeled LES as inputs, and not filtered variables from a database, thus ensuring that resulting models are consistent with their final application environment. This is achieved by implementing the candidate wall models, created by the symbolic regression technique Gene-Expression Programming (GEP), into an LES solver and using the wall-modeled CFD outputs to construct the training cost function. The resulting models are explicit algebraic expressions and human-interpretable. Another benefit of this procedure is that it does not require dense high-fidelity data sets, although training is more computationally expensive. The framework was tested and validated using the well-established periodic hills case. Two cost functions were used separately: the mean skin friction coefficient distribution and a limited number of mean velocity profiles distributed over the domain. The wall models trained by the GEP algorithm were able to reconstruct the flow even with very under-resolved grids close to the wall for both scenarios. Despite the focus of the work being the Machine Learning method, we also tested the GEP model for other cases with similar physical features to analyze the flexibility of the model. The results are encouraging and show the potential of the developed training framework. An additional direct numerical simulation (DNS) is conducted of the periodic hills case to provide filtered ‘truth’ data. Comparing the inputs the wall model is provided from wall-modeled LES or from the filtered DNS data reveals substantial differences, both in terms of absolute values and range. This further justifies the present consistent approach of <em>in situ</em> wall-model training.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110157"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620679","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sustainable solar desalination via surface tension manipulation: Experimental analysis of charcoal powder in hemispherical stills","authors":"Moataz M. Abdel-Aziz ,&nbsp;Abd Elnaby Kabeel ,&nbsp;Mohammed El Hadi Attia","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110150","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110150","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study introduces a novel approach for enhancing solar water distillation by manipulating the surface tension of basin water through the addition of coal powder in hemispherical solar stills. Unlike previous improvement techniques that primarily relied on phase change materials, nanoparticles, or geometric modifications, the present work focuses on modifying the interfacial properties of water to accelerate evaporation. Experimental investigations conducted under El-Oued, Algeria’s climatic conditions demonstrated that the coal powder significantly reduced the surface tension of saline water by 0.87 %, which in turn increased the evaporation rate and freshwater productivity. The modified hemispherical still produced 6.80 L/m2 of distilled water per day representing a 41.67 % increase compared with the conventional still and achieved 41.12 % higher daily efficiency with a 63.16 % reduction in production cost. The shortened recovery period of only 19 days highlights the economic feasibility of this surface-tension-driven approach. This work establishes coal powder as a sustainable, low-cost, and scalable enhancement for solar desalination systems, introducing a new mechanism of performance improvement based on interfacial thermodynamics rather than purely thermal energy storage.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110150"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620357","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Three-dimensional numerical investigation on the heat transfer and bypass flow characteristics in a pebble-bed high temperature gas-cooled reactor","authors":"Wei Liu ,&nbsp;Jin Shi ,&nbsp;Shang-Zhen Yu ,&nbsp;Qi Guo ,&nbsp;Zi-Xuan Liu ,&nbsp;Jin-Song Guo ,&nbsp;Xue-Lin Li ,&nbsp;Zeng-Yao Li","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110161","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110161","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The pebble-bed high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) is a type of the Generation IV reactor. For the necessary thermal and radiation protection, the walls around the pebble bed are stacked with the graphite reflector layer and the carbon bricks. The bypass flow fails to effectively cool the fuel pebbles in the pebble bed and thus influences the efficiency and safety of HTGR. In this paper, a comprehensive three-dimensional model for HN-750 self-designed by HUANENG Group of China is established. A physically realistic mathematical model is proposed to investigate the convective heat transfer and the bypass flow characteristics in HN-750. The results indicate that the maximum temperature of the pebble bed with bypass flow is about 200 K higher than that without bypass flow, while the pressure drop in pebble bed is about 13 kPa lower than that without bypass flow. The bypass flow accounts for 29.25 % of the total helium flow, 24.43 % of which is the vertical gap bypass flow. The synergistic combination of square keys and sealing strips can effectively block nearly half of the vertical gap bypass flow. The present large-scale three-dimensional numerical calculations can support the thermal–hydraulic optimization and safety analysis of pebble-bed HTGRs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110161"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620687","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A parametric study for a cascaded pin finned heat sink filled with phase change material of low melting point type","authors":"Sherin Moustafa ,&nbsp;Gaosheng Wei ,&nbsp;M. Abd El-Hamid","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110160","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110160","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the thermal performance of phase change material (PCM)-based heat sinks for portable electronic devices using ANSYS FLUENT. A novel multilayered PCM heat sink with pin fins is proposed, incorporating low melting point alloys (LMPA), paraffin, and both. The research compares single-layered and multilayered configurations, evaluating their performance under varying pin–fin volume fractions, heat sink orientations, PCM fill ratios, and heat flux values. The findings highlight significant thermal improvements, with multilayered PCM achieving an enhancement ratio of up to 1.12 compared to single-layered modules (1.03, 1.027, and 0.96). Increasing pin–fin volume fractions over fin thickness notably boosts performance, while a PCM fill ratio of 100 % at a high heat flux of 5000 W/m² extends melting time by 2.97 times compared to 25 %. Inclination angles of 30° deliver the lowest average temperatures and longest melting durations. Additionally, a 4 % fin volume fraction results in lower base temperatures than 16 % and 9 % at equivalent fin thickness. This research demonstrates the potential of multilayered PCM heat sinks with pin fins for enhancing thermal regulation in electronics, making them a promising solution for efficient heat dissipation under high-performance demands.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110160"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620161","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Buoyancy opposed flow over a heated hollow sphere","authors":"Saykat Kumar Biswas ,&nbsp;R. Chavez ,&nbsp;N.K. Anand ,&nbsp;Shuiwang Ji ,&nbsp;Yassin A. Hassan","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110137","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2025.110137","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the buoyancy-opposed turbulent flow over a heated hollow sphere placed inside a circular pipe by performing Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The Reynolds number (<span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi></mrow></math></span>), based on the sphere diameter, and inlet velocity, was fixed at 16,000, while the Richardson number (<span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>i</mi></mrow></math></span>) was varied from 0 to 2.21 to include both forced and mixed convection conditions. Argon was selected as the working fluid at an operating pressure of 3 MPa to reflect conditions relevant to the experimental data used for comparison. LES predictions were compared with available experimental and Numerical data. Detailed analysis was conducted on key flow and thermal characteristics, including the non-dimensional reattachment length (<span><math><mrow><mi>L</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>D</mi></mrow></math></span>), separation angle (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>θ</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>), measured from the upstream stagnation point, turbulent kinetic energy (<span><math><mrow><mi>T</mi><mi>K</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>/</mo><msubsup><mrow><mi>U</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>∞</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msubsup></mrow></math></span>), Nusselt number (<span><math><mrow><mi>N</mi><mi>u</mi></mrow></math></span>), and Strouhal number (<span><math><mrow><mi>S</mi><mi>t</mi></mrow></math></span>). Moreover, Power Spectral Density (PSD) was performed on the co-efficient of lift (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>C</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>l</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>) to determine the vortex shedding frequency (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>f</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>v</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>). The results demonstrated that, as <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>i</mi></mrow></math></span> increased, buoyancy effects increasingly opposed the main flow, resulting in longer reattachment lengths, shorter separation angles, and slightly smaller <span><math><mrow><mi>S</mi><mi>t</mi></mrow></math></span>. This indicated that buoyancy caused the wake region to expand both in length and width. Furthermore, Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) was performed on streamwise and cross-stream velocity components and it was found that the first 159 modes contained 90% of the total energy for <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>i</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>84</mn></mrow></math></span>. Further analysis suggested that variation in <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><mi>i</mi></mrow></math></span> has little effect on the system’s dimensionality.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"117 ","pages":"Article 110137"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-11-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145620162","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}