Cognition最新文献_第8页

Beyond the matrix: Experimental approaches to studying cognitive agents in social-ecological systems 超越矩阵：研究社会生态系统中认知代理的实验方法。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105993

Uri Hertz , Raphael Köster , Marco A. Janssen , Joel Z. Leibo

Social-ecological systems, in which agents interact with each other and their environment are important both for sustainability applications and for under- standing how human cognition functions in context. In such systems, the en- vironment shapes the agents' experience and actions, and in turn collective action of agents changes social and physical aspects of the environment. Here we review current investigation approaches, which rely on a lean design, with discrete actions and outcomes and little scope for varying environmental pa- rameters and cognitive demands. We then introduce multiagent reinforcement learning (MARL) approach, which builds on modern artificial intelligence tech- niques, which provides new avenues to model complex social worlds, while pre- serving more of their characteristics, and allowing them to capture a variety of social phenomena. These techniques can be fed back to the laboratory where they make it easier to design experiments in complex social situations without compromising their tractability for computational modeling. We showcase the potential MARL by discussing several recent studies that have used it, detail- ing the way environmental settings and cognitive constraints can lead to the emergence of complex cooperation strategies. This novel approach can help re- searchers bring together insights from human cognition, sustainability, and AI, to tackle real world problems of social-ecological systems.

在社会生态系统中，行为主体之间及其与环境之间的互动对于可持续性应用和了解人类认知如何在环境中发挥作用都非常重要。在这类系统中，环境影响着行为主体的经验和行动，而行为主体的集体行动反过来又改变着环境的社会和物理方面。在此，我们回顾了当前的研究方法，这些方法依赖于精益设计，具有离散的行动和结果，几乎不考虑不同的环境参数和认知需求。然后，我们介绍了多代理强化学习（MARL）方法，该方法以现代人工智能技术为基础，为复杂的社会世界建模提供了新的途径，同时预设了更多的社会世界特征，并允许它们捕捉各种社会现象。这些技术可以反馈到实验室，使复杂社会情境下的实验设计变得更加容易，同时又不影响计算建模的可操作性。我们将通过讨论最近使用 MARL 的几项研究来展示 MARL 的潜力，详细介绍环境设置和认知限制如何导致复杂合作策略的出现。这种新颖的方法可以帮助研究人员将人类认知、可持续发展和人工智能的见解结合起来，解决现实世界中的社会生态系统问题。

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引用次数: 0

The Body Knows Better: Sensorimotor signals reveal the interplay between implicit and explicit Sense of Agency in the human mind 身体知道更多：感官运动信号揭示了人类头脑中隐性和显性代理意识之间的相互作用。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105992

Asaf Applebaum , Ophir Netzer , Yonatan Stern , Yair Zvilichovsky , Oz Mashiah , Roy Salomon

Sense of Agency (SoA) is the feeling of control over our actions. SoA has been suggested to arise from both implicit sensorimotor integration as well as higher-level decision processes. SoA is typically measured by collecting participants' subjective judgments, conflating both implicit and explicit processing. Consequently, the interplay between implicit sensorimotor processing and explicit agency judgments is not well understood. Here, we evaluated in one exploratory and one preregistered experiment (N = 60), using a machine learning approach, the relation between a well-known mechanism of implicit sensorimotor adaptation and explicit SoA judgments. Specifically, we examined whether subjective judgments of SoA and sensorimotor conflicts could be inferred from hand kinematics in a sensorimotor task using a virtual hand (VH). In both experiments participants performed a hand movement and viewed a virtual hand making a movement that could either be synchronous with their action or include a parametric temporal delay. After each movement, participants judged whether their actual movement was congruent with the movement they observed. Our results demonstrated that sensorimotor conflicts could be inferred from implicit motor kinematics on a trial by trial basis. Moreover, detection of sensorimotor conflicts from machine learning models of kinematic data provided more accurate classification of sensorimotor congruence than participants' explicit judgments. These results were replicated in a second, preregistered, experiment. These findings show evidence of diverging implicit and explicit processing for SoA and suggest that the brain holds high-quality information on sensorimotor conflicts that is not fully utilized in the inference of conscious agency.

代理感（SoA）是指对自己行为的控制感。有人认为，SoA 来自于内隐的感觉运动整合以及更高层次的决策过程。SoA 通常是通过收集参与者的主观判断来测量的，这就混淆了内隐和外显的处理过程。因此，人们对内隐感觉运动处理和显性代理判断之间的相互作用还不甚了解。在这里，我们使用机器学习方法，在一个探索性实验和一个预先登记的实验（N = 60）中评估了众所周知的内隐感觉运动适应机制与显性代理判断之间的关系。具体来说，我们研究了在使用虚拟手（VH）的感觉运动任务中，是否可以从手部运动学推断出对 SoA 和感觉运动冲突的主观判断。在这两项实验中，参与者在做一个手部动作的同时，会看到一只虚拟手在做一个动作，这个动作可能与他们的动作同步，也可能包含一个参数时间延迟。每次动作结束后，参与者判断自己的实际动作是否与观察到的动作一致。我们的研究结果表明，感官运动冲突可以通过逐次试验从内隐运动运动学中推断出来。此外，从运动学数据的机器学习模型中检测感觉运动冲突比参与者的明确判断提供了更准确的感觉运动一致性分类。这些结果在第二个预先登记的实验中得到了验证。这些研究结果表明，SoA 的内隐和外显处理过程存在差异，并表明大脑拥有关于感觉运动冲突的高质量信息，但这些信息在推断有意识代理时并未得到充分利用。

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引用次数: 0

Use of self-referencing memory strategies change over time with acculturation 自我参照记忆策略的使用会随着文化背景的改变而改变。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105985

Ashley N. Gilliam, Angela Gutchess

Although cross-cultural research identifies cognitive differences when comparing across individuals, few studies have examined how acculturation, or cultural change over time within individuals, affects cognition. To address this gap, we investigated how acculturation and change in self-construal for Chinese students in the US impacts the self-reference effect in memory over two timepoints. Participants completed a self-referencing memory task and a set of questionnaires assessing acculturation orientation and self-construal over two time points, on average 16 months apart. As individuals' orientation towards host culture and independence increased over the two time points, they exhibited a larger self-reference effect (self vs. other) in memory and a smaller other-reference (other vs. control) effect. These patterns indicated that as Chinese students became more acculturated to US culture, they exhibited more US-like patterns of behavior in memory. In contrast, between-participant variability in acculturation orientation and independence were not related to self- or other-referencing.

尽管跨文化研究发现了不同个体之间的认知差异，但很少有研究探讨文化适应或个体内部随时间发生的文化变化如何影响认知。为了填补这一空白，我们研究了在美国的中国学生的文化适应和自我概念的变化如何影响两个时间点上记忆中的自我参照效应。受试者在平均相隔 16 个月的两个时间点上完成了一项自我参照记忆任务和一组评估文化适应取向和自我建构的问卷。在这两个时间点上，随着个人对东道国文化和独立性取向的增加，他们在记忆中表现出更大的自我参照效应（自我与他人）和更小的他者参照效应（他人与对照组）。这些模式表明，随着中国学生越来越适应美国文化，他们在记忆中表现出了更多类似美国的行为模式。与此相反，参与者之间在文化适应取向和独立性方面的差异与自我或他者参照无关。

引用次数: 0

Temporal construal in sentence comprehension depends on linguistically encoded event structure 句子理解中的时间概念取决于语言编码的事件结构。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105975

Elena Marx, Eva Wittenberg

How events are ordered in time is one of the most fundamental pieces of information guiding our understanding of the world. Linguistically, this order is often not mentioned explicitly. Here, we propose that the mental construal of temporal order in language comprehension is based on event-structural properties. This prediction is based on a central distinction between states and events both in event perception and language: In perception, dynamic events are more salient than static states. In language, stative and eventive predicates also differ, both in their grammatical behavior and how they are processed. Consistent with our predictions, data from seven pre-registered video-sentence matching experiments, each conducted in English and German (total N = 674), show that people draw temporal inferences based on this difference: States precede events. Our findings not only arbitrate between different theories of temporal language comprehension; they also advance theoretical models of how two different cognitive capacities - event cognition and language - integrate to form a mental representation of time.

事件在时间上如何排序是指导我们理解世界的最基本信息之一。在语言学中，这种顺序通常不会被明确提及。在这里，我们提出，在语言理解中，对时间顺序的心理构解是基于事件结构属性的。这一预测基于事件感知和语言中状态与事件之间的核心区别：在感知中，动态事件比静态状态更突出。在语言中，陈述性谓词和事件性谓词在语法行为和处理方式上也有所不同。与我们的预测相一致的是，七个预先登记的视频-句子匹配实验数据（每个实验用英语和德语进行，总人数 = 674）表明，人们会根据这种差异做出时间推断：状态先于事件。我们的研究结果不仅对不同的时间语言理解理论进行了仲裁，而且还推进了关于事件认知和语言这两种不同认知能力如何整合形成时间心理表征的理论模型。

引用次数: 0

Unlocking the complexity of phrasal composition: An interplay between semantic features and linguistic relations 揭示短语构成的复杂性：语义特征与语言关系之间的相互作用。

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105986

Shaonan Wang , Songhee Kim , Jeffrey R. Binder , Liina Pylkkänen

Understanding the computational operations involved in conceptual composition is fundamental for theories of language. However, the existing literature on this topic remains fragmented, comprising disconnected theories from various fields. For instance, while formal semantic theories in Linguistics rely on type-driven interpretation without explicitly representing the conceptual content of lexical items, neurolinguistic research suggests that the brain is sensitive to conceptual factors during word composition. What is the relationship between these two types of theories? Do they describe two distinct aspects of composition, operating independently, or do they connect in some way during interpretation by our brain? To probe this, we explored how the mathematical operations explaining the combination of two words into a phrase are affected by the semantic content of items and the formal linguistic relations between the combining items. For six phrase types that varied properties relevant to type-driven interpretation such as modification vs. argument-saturation and modifier context sensitivity, we collected human ratings of experiential semantic features both for the phrases and for all the individual words within the phrases. We then compared the ability of different computational combination rules to explain the phrase ratings based on the individual word ratings. Our results indicate that composition operations are not one-size-fits-all but rather depend on both feature type and linguistic relation. For example, in intersective Adjective-Noun phrases, addition is used to merge attention-related features, while color features are predominantly determined by the first word's ratings. In the case of social features, the verb chiefly guides interpretation in Verb-Noun phrases, whereas in Noun-Noun phrases, the model employs multiplication to combine the social features of the nouns.

理解概念构成所涉及的计算操作是语言理论的基础。然而，关于这一主题的现有文献仍然支离破碎，由来自不同领域的互不关联的理论组成。例如，语言学中的形式语义理论依赖于类型驱动的解释，并不明确表示词条的概念内容，而神经语言学研究则表明，大脑在构词过程中对概念因素非常敏感。这两类理论之间的关系是什么？它们是在描述构词的两个不同方面，各自独立运作，还是在大脑的解释过程中以某种方式联系在一起？为了探究这个问题，我们探讨了解释将两个词组合成一个短语的数学运算是如何受到词项的语义内容和组合词项之间的形式语言关系的影响的。对于六种短语类型，我们收集了人类对短语和短语中所有单词的经验语义特征的评分，这些短语类型具有与类型驱动解释相关的不同属性，如修饰与论据饱和以及修饰语语境敏感性。然后，我们比较了不同的计算组合规则在单个词评级的基础上解释短语评级的能力。我们的结果表明，组合操作并非放之四海而皆准，而是取决于特征类型和语言关系。例如，在形容词-名词交错短语中，加法用于合并与注意力相关的特征，而颜色特征则主要由第一个词的评分决定。就社会特征而言，在动词-名词短语中，动词主要引导解释，而在名词-名词短语中，模型则使用乘法来合并名词的社会特征。

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引用次数: 0

Learning from conditional probabilities 从条件概率中学习

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105962

Corina Strößner, Ulrike Hahn

Bayesianism, that is, the formal capturing of belief in terms of probabilities, has had a major impact in cognitive science. Decades of research have examined lay reasoners’ learning and reasoning with probabilities. The bulk of that research has concerned the response to new evidence. That response will depend on the conditional probabilities a reasoner assumes, yet little research has addressed the question of how reasoners respond when they are provided with new conditional probabilities. Furthermore, there are not just open empirical questions as to how lay reasoners actually respond, there are also open questions as to how they should respond. This is illustrated by philosophical debate about the so-called Judy Benjamin Problem. In this paper, we present experiments on belief revision problems in which the new information is a conditional probability. More specifically, we investigate two versions of these problems: one where basic probability theory (as the core of what it means ‘to be Bayesian’) provides a single correct answer, and one where that answer is under-constrained. The former provide a new type of evidence on the longstanding question of human probabilistic reasoning skill. The latter informs debate on how to expand the Bayesian toolbox to deal with the issues raised by the Judy Benjamin Problem.

贝叶斯主义，即用概率的形式捕捉信念，对认知科学产生了重大影响。数十年来，人们对非专业推理者学习和推理概率的情况进行了研究。其中大部分研究涉及对新证据的反应。这种反应取决于推理者所假设的条件概率，但很少有研究涉及推理者在获得新的条件概率时如何反应的问题。此外，关于非专业推理者究竟如何应对，不仅存在经验上的问题，而且还存在他们应该如何应对的问题。关于所谓 "朱迪-本杰明问题 "的哲学争论就说明了这一点。在本文中，我们将对新信息是条件概率的信念修正问题进行实验。更具体地说，我们研究了这些问题的两个版本。一种是基本概率论（作为 "贝叶斯 "的核心）提供了单一的正确答案，另一种是该答案受限。前者为人类概率推理技能这一长期存在的问题提供了一种新的证据。后者为关于如何扩展贝叶斯工具箱以处理朱迪-本杰明问题所提出的问题的辩论提供了信息。

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引用次数: 0

How visual experience shapes body representation 视觉体验如何塑造身体表征

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105980

Iqra Shahzad , Valeria Occelli , Eléonore Giraudet , Elena Azañón , Matthew R. Longo , André Mouraux , Olivier Collignon

We do not have a veridical representation of our body in our mind. For instance, tactile distances of equal measure along the medial-lateral axis of our limbs are generally perceived as larger than those running along the proximal-distal axis. This anisotropy in tactile distances reflects distortions in body-shape representation, such that the body parts are perceived as wider than they are. While the origin of such anisotropy remains unknown, it has been suggested that visual experience could partially play a role in its manifestation. To causally test the role of visual experience on body shape representation, we investigated tactile distance perception in sighted and early blind individuals comparing medial-lateral and proximal-distal tactile distances of stimuli presented on the ventral and dorsal part of the forearm, wrist, and hand. Overestimation of distances in the medial-lateral over proximal-distal body axes were found in both sighted and blind people, but the magnitude of the anisotropy was significantly reduced in the forearms of blind people. We conclude that vision does not drive the emergence of tactile distance anisotropies, but visual experience can however modulate its expression on some specific body parts.

在我们的头脑中，身体并不是真实存在的。例如，沿着四肢内侧-外侧轴的等量触觉距离通常被认为比沿着近端-远端轴的触觉距离大。触觉距离的这种各向异性反映了身体形状表征的扭曲，例如，身体部位被认为比实际要宽。虽然这种各向异性的起源尚不清楚，但有人认为视觉经验可能在其表现中起了部分作用。为了检验视觉经验对身体形状表征的因果作用，我们研究了明眼人和早期盲人的触觉距离感知，比较了前臂、手腕和手的腹侧和背侧刺激物的内侧-外侧和近侧-远侧触觉距离。结果发现，明眼人和盲人都高估了身体内外侧轴和近端-远端轴的距离，但盲人前臂的各向异性程度明显降低。我们的结论是，视觉并不驱动触觉距离各向异性的出现，但视觉经验可以调节触觉距离各向异性在某些特定身体部位的表现。

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引用次数: 0

Children recognize and reject favoritism in norm enforcement 儿童认识到并拒绝规范执行中的偏袒行为

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105981

Louisa Huff, Tindaya Déniz, Linda Gronem, Sebastian Grueneisen

The impartial enforcement of norms and laws is a hallmark of fair societies, yet partial, unequal norm enforcement is common, for example as a result of corruption. While children condemn norm violations and value impartiality in resource allocation contexts, children's understanding of unequal norm enforcement is currently underexplored. In three vignette studies, we investigated 4- to 8-year-old's (N = 192) developing recognition and condemnation of unequal norm enforcement, which presupposes a sensitivity to impartiality as a meta-norm. Children evaluated the actions of characters who enforced different norms equally or unequally. From age 5, children disapproved of unequal norm enforcement but approved of unequal treatment when justified (Study 1). Children of all ages accepted a lack of punishment when applied equally to all transgressors, suggesting that their negative evaluations of unequal norm enforcement were specifically guided by the element of partiality and not the desire to see transgressors sanctioned (Study 2). Further, children aged 6 years and older were sensitive to the reasons behind unequal punishment, condemning instances of favoritism while accepting selective leniency due to mitigating circumstances (Study 3). The findings show that, from around 5 to 6 years of age, children condemn unequal sanctions for equal transgressions, thereby demonstrating a deep appreciation of impartiality as a foundational principle of fair norm enforcement.

不偏不倚地执行规范和法律是公平社会的标志，但部分、不平等地执行规范的情况却很普遍，例如腐败造成的结果。虽然儿童谴责违反规范的行为，并重视资源分配中的公正性，但儿童对不平等规范执行的理解目前尚未得到充分探索。在三项小故事研究中，我们调查了 4 至 8 岁儿童（人数 = 192）对不平等规范执行的认识和谴责发展情况。儿童对平等或不平等地执行不同规范的角色的行为进行评价。从 5 岁开始，儿童就不赞成不平等地执行准则，但在有正当理由的情况下则赞成不平等待遇（研究 1）。所有年龄段的儿童都能接受对所有违规者一视同仁的惩罚，这表明他们对不平等规范执行的负面评价是受偏袒因素的具体引导，而不是希望看到违规者受到制裁（研究 2）。此外，6 岁及以上的儿童对不平等惩罚背后的原因很敏感，他们谴责偏袒行为，同时也接受因情节轻微而有选择性的宽大处理（研究 3）。研究结果表明，从 5 到 6 岁左右开始，儿童就会谴责对同等违法行为的不平等惩罚，从而显示出他们对公正性这一公平执行规范的基本原则的深刻理解。

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引用次数: 0

Recollective and non-recollective processes in working memory retrieval 工作记忆检索中的回忆和非回忆过程

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105978

Fiona Laura Rosselet-Jordan , Marlène Abadie , Stéphanie Mariz Elsig , Pierre Barrouillet , Valérie Camos

The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of the processes involved in working memory (WM) retrieval by distinguishing between recollective (direct access) and non-recollective (reconstruction) recall. To this end, the trichotomous theory of recall (Brainerd et al., 2009) was applied to young adults' recall performance in a complex span task in which word lists were presented in three successive study-test trials. In three experiments, factors known to affect WM performance were manipulated, such as the cognitive load (CL) of the concurrent task and the involvement of long-term memory (LTM) knowledge through the associative relatedness of the memory items and the temporally spaced presentation of memory lists. The application of the trichotomous theory of recall proved effective and established that both recollective and non-recollective processes support WM recall, though recollective processes are predominant. The detrimental effect of increased CL on recall performance appeared to result from a reduction in direct access, while leaving reconstruction unaffected. Two manipulations aimed at increasing the involvement of LTM in recall had different effects on retrieval processes. Associative relatedness favored direct access, while spaced presentation reduced it. The implications of these findings for our understanding of the relationships between LTM and WM and for WM theories are discussed.

本研究的目的是通过区分回忆性（直接访问）和非回忆性（重建）回忆，研究工作记忆（WM）检索过程的性质。为此，研究人员将回忆的三分法理论（Brainerd 等人，2009 年）应用于年轻成人在复杂跨度任务中的回忆表现。在三项实验中，对已知会影响 WM 表现的因素进行了操作，如同时进行的任务的认知负荷（CL），以及通过记忆项目的联想相关性和记忆列表的时间间隔呈现对长时记忆（LTM）知识的参与。事实证明，三重回忆理论的应用是有效的，它确定了回忆和非回忆过程都支持 WM 回忆，但回忆过程占主导地位。CL增加对回忆成绩的不利影响似乎是由于直接访问的减少，而重构则不受影响。两种旨在增加 LTM 在回忆中的参与度的操作对检索过程产生了不同的影响。关联性有利于直接进入，而间隔呈现则会减少直接进入。本文讨论了这些发现对我们理解LTM和WM之间关系以及WM理论的影响。

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引用次数: 0

Motivational context determines the impact of aversive outcomes on mental effort allocation 动机背景决定了厌恶结果对脑力分配的影响

IF 2.8 1区心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL

Cognition

Pub Date : 2024-10-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105973

Mahalia Prater Fahey , Debbie M. Yee , Xiamin Leng , Maisy Tarlow , Amitai Shenhav

It is well known that people will exert effort on a task if sufficiently motivated, but how they distribute these efforts across different strategies (e.g., efficiency vs. caution) remains uncertain. Past work has shown that people invest effort differently for potential positive outcomes (rewards) versus potential negative outcomes (penalties). However, this research failed to account for differences in the context in which negative outcomes motivate someone - either as punishment or reinforcement. It is therefore unclear whether effort profiles differ as a function of outcome valence, motivational context, or both. Using computational modeling and our novel Multi-Incentive Control Task, we show that the influence of aversive outcomes on one's effort profile is entirely determined by their motivational context. Participants (N:91) favored increased caution in response to larger penalties for incorrect responses, and favored increased efficiency in response to larger reinforcement for correct responses, whether positively or negatively incentivized.

Statement of relevance

People have to constantly decide how to allocate their mental effort, and in doing so can be motivated by both the positive outcomes that effort accrues and the negative outcomes that effort avoids. For example, someone might persist on a project for work in the hopes of being promoted or to avoid being reprimanded or even fired. Understanding how people weigh these different types of incentives is critical for understanding variability in human achievement as well as sources of motivational impairments (e.g., in major depression). We show that people not only consider both potential positive and negative outcomes when allocating mental effort, but that the profile of effort they engage under negative incentives differs depending on whether that outcome is contingent on sustaining good performance (negative reinforcement) or avoiding bad performance (punishment). Clarifying the motivational factors that determine effort exertion is an important step for understanding motivational impairments in psychopathology.

众所周知，如果有足够的动机，人们就会在一项任务中付出努力，但他们如何将这些努力分配到不同的策略中（例如，高效与谨慎）仍不确定。过去的研究表明，人们对潜在的积极结果（奖励）和潜在的消极结果（惩罚）所投入的精力是不同的。然而，这些研究没有考虑到负面结果激励人们的背景差异--是惩罚还是强化。因此，目前还不清楚努力程度是否因结果价值、动机背景或两者而异。通过计算建模和新颖的多重激励控制任务，我们证明了厌恶性结果对一个人努力程度的影响完全取决于其动机背景。无论是正激励还是负激励，参与者（人数：91）都倾向于在错误回答受到更大惩罚时更加谨慎，而在正确回答受到更大强化时提高效率。例如，一个人可能会坚持完成一个工作项目，希望得到晋升，或者避免被训斥甚至解雇。了解人们如何权衡这些不同类型的激励对于理解人类成就的差异性以及动机障碍（如重度抑郁症）的来源至关重要。我们的研究表明，人们在分配脑力时不仅会考虑潜在的积极和消极结果，而且在消极激励下，人们所付出的努力会因结果是取决于保持良好表现（消极强化）还是避免不良表现（惩罚）而有所不同。明确决定努力程度的动机因素是理解精神病理学中动机障碍的重要一步。

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引用次数: 0