Pub Date : 2026-01-30DOI: 10.1038/s41528-026-00529-5
Marco Buzio, Martina Gini, Tom C. Schneider, Nevena Stajkovic, Sven Ingebrandt, Laura De Laporte, Andreas Offenhäusser, Valeria Criscuolo, Francesca Santoro
The mechanical similarity between bioelectronic platforms and native tissue microenvironments is critical for successful cell-microdevice interfacing. Advances in high-resolution microfabrication have enabled the creation of 3D conductive microstructures; however, these approaches typically yield to structures that are electrically active but mechanically stiff relative to biological tissues. In this work, we present a strategy for the fabrication of soft 3D bioelectronic interfaces by blending PEDOT:PSS with a methacrylate-modified gelatin and leveraging two-photon polymerization lithography for micropatterning. Incorporating the conducting polymer into the hydrogel matrix resulted in reduced electrical impedance and exhibited soft mechanical properties both at the macro- and micro-scale. Here, the conductive hydrogel blends have been 3D printed, their versatility was assessed through different geometries and were used for neuronal cell culture. This approach enables the fabrication of soft neural interfaces with biomimetic architectures, using multimaterial blends, supporting improved electrical and mechanical integration at the cell-electrode interface.
{"title":"3D micropatterning of PEDOT:PSS/Gelatin conductive hydrogels via two-photon lithography for soft bioelectronics","authors":"Marco Buzio, Martina Gini, Tom C. Schneider, Nevena Stajkovic, Sven Ingebrandt, Laura De Laporte, Andreas Offenhäusser, Valeria Criscuolo, Francesca Santoro","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00529-5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00529-5","url":null,"abstract":"The mechanical similarity between bioelectronic platforms and native tissue microenvironments is critical for successful cell-microdevice interfacing. Advances in high-resolution microfabrication have enabled the creation of 3D conductive microstructures; however, these approaches typically yield to structures that are electrically active but mechanically stiff relative to biological tissues. In this work, we present a strategy for the fabrication of soft 3D bioelectronic interfaces by blending PEDOT:PSS with a methacrylate-modified gelatin and leveraging two-photon polymerization lithography for micropatterning. Incorporating the conducting polymer into the hydrogel matrix resulted in reduced electrical impedance and exhibited soft mechanical properties both at the macro- and micro-scale. Here, the conductive hydrogel blends have been 3D printed, their versatility was assessed through different geometries and were used for neuronal cell culture. This approach enables the fabrication of soft neural interfaces with biomimetic architectures, using multimaterial blends, supporting improved electrical and mechanical integration at the cell-electrode interface.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"282 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146089278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-29DOI: 10.1038/s41528-026-00537-5
Lingsen You, Yirong Qu, Yuheng Chen, Yu Wang, Li Shen, Junbo Ge
This review introduces the “4 A Tetrahedron System” (Assessment, Assistance, Aftercare, AI-retrofit) as a synergistic framework for panvascular intervention empowered by flexible electronics. Central to this is the novel concept of “suitcordance”—short-term suitability and long-term concordance. By integrating flexible sensors, navigation tools, and AI algorithms, this framework establishes a closed-loop data ecosystem, driving a transition toward intelligent, full-cycle disease management.
{"title":"4A tetrahedron system: a synergistic framework for panvascular intervention empowered by flexible electronics","authors":"Lingsen You, Yirong Qu, Yuheng Chen, Yu Wang, Li Shen, Junbo Ge","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00537-5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00537-5","url":null,"abstract":"This review introduces the “4 A Tetrahedron System” (Assessment, Assistance, Aftercare, AI-retrofit) as a synergistic framework for panvascular intervention empowered by flexible electronics. Central to this is the novel concept of “suitcordance”—short-term suitability and long-term concordance. By integrating flexible sensors, navigation tools, and AI algorithms, this framework establishes a closed-loop data ecosystem, driving a transition toward intelligent, full-cycle disease management.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"8 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146089279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Wearable sweat rate and electrolyte sensors offer real-time assessment of hydration status. Current epidermal microfluidic devices represent the widely adopted approach; however, their limitation for microliter-scale sweat collection often results in response latency and compromised detection accuracy. A rapid sweat-absorbing material (RSAM) filled in the collection chamber between the microfluidic device and the skin has been demonstrated as an effective solution. This work proposes a polyvinyl alcohol@polyurethane microfiber composite hydrogel (PVA@PU MH) with unidirectional sweat-transport capability in the inlet chamber of a microfluidic. The optimized PVA@PU MH exhibits a sweat collection efficiency that is 49.76 ± 6.75% higher than traditional methods. With anisotropic microchannels, PVA@PU MH leverages capillary action to confine sweat laterally and drive vertical transport directionally. Additionally, the integration of conductivity-sensing components within the microfluidic system enables the detection of both sweat rate and electrolyte concentration. A low-power unit was developed to process and wirelessly transmit real-time sweat data to mobile devices for continuous monitoring. The PVA@PU MH facilitated both faster sweat uptake and more physiologically representative analyte readings, as evidenced by a strong correlation with whole-body measurements. The proposed strategy rapidly acquires microliter sweat samples, substantially expanding wearable monitoring capabilities.
{"title":"Directional permeation-driven microfiber composite hydrogel towards rapid sweat uptaking and hydration monitoring","authors":"Hao Shen, Siyuan Liu, Mengyuan Liu, Yujie Liu, Feng Wen, Mingxu Wang, Yongfeng Wang, Qiang Gao, Lianhui Li, Dengfeng Zhou, Zuoping Xiong, Shuqi Wang, Ting Zhang","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00535-7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00535-7","url":null,"abstract":"Wearable sweat rate and electrolyte sensors offer real-time assessment of hydration status. Current epidermal microfluidic devices represent the widely adopted approach; however, their limitation for microliter-scale sweat collection often results in response latency and compromised detection accuracy. A rapid sweat-absorbing material (RSAM) filled in the collection chamber between the microfluidic device and the skin has been demonstrated as an effective solution. This work proposes a polyvinyl alcohol@polyurethane microfiber composite hydrogel (PVA@PU MH) with unidirectional sweat-transport capability in the inlet chamber of a microfluidic. The optimized PVA@PU MH exhibits a sweat collection efficiency that is 49.76 ± 6.75% higher than traditional methods. With anisotropic microchannels, PVA@PU MH leverages capillary action to confine sweat laterally and drive vertical transport directionally. Additionally, the integration of conductivity-sensing components within the microfluidic system enables the detection of both sweat rate and electrolyte concentration. A low-power unit was developed to process and wirelessly transmit real-time sweat data to mobile devices for continuous monitoring. The PVA@PU MH facilitated both faster sweat uptake and more physiologically representative analyte readings, as evidenced by a strong correlation with whole-body measurements. The proposed strategy rapidly acquires microliter sweat samples, substantially expanding wearable monitoring capabilities.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"39 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146057252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Large-area electronic sensor and actuator arrays are suitable systems for thin-film transistor (TFT) technology with numerous applications from consumer electronics to healthcare. Considerable effort is being spent to make these arrays a reality. However, research on the power delivery circuits that supply these arrays has remained largely unexplored. This work delves into the design trade-offs and characterization of high output power boost converters in low-temperature polysilicon (LTPS) technology. The proposed boost converters deliver 0.62–2.17 W of output power, orders of magnitude above prior TFT solutions, with efficiencies ranging from 47 to 69.5%. These boost converters enable the realization of large-area sensor and actuator arrays and set the foundation for future research in this area.
{"title":"High output power low temperature polysilicon thin-film transistor boost converters for large-area sensor and actuator applications","authors":"Mauricio Velazquez Lopez, Nikolas Papadopoulos, Paoline Coulson, Bjorn Vandecasteele, Kris Myny","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00536-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00536-6","url":null,"abstract":"Large-area electronic sensor and actuator arrays are suitable systems for thin-film transistor (TFT) technology with numerous applications from consumer electronics to healthcare. Considerable effort is being spent to make these arrays a reality. However, research on the power delivery circuits that supply these arrays has remained largely unexplored. This work delves into the design trade-offs and characterization of high output power boost converters in low-temperature polysilicon (LTPS) technology. The proposed boost converters deliver 0.62–2.17 W of output power, orders of magnitude above prior TFT solutions, with efficiencies ranging from 47 to 69.5%. These boost converters enable the realization of large-area sensor and actuator arrays and set the foundation for future research in this area.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"296 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146057253","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-22DOI: 10.1038/s41528-025-00512-6
Mohammad Javad Mirshojaeian Hosseini, Yi Yang, Simeon Bamford, Chiara Bartolozzi, Giacomo Indiveri, Robert A. Nawrocki
{"title":"An organic spiking artificial neuron with excitatory and inhibitory synapses: towards soft and flexible organic neuromorphic processing","authors":"Mohammad Javad Mirshojaeian Hosseini, Yi Yang, Simeon Bamford, Chiara Bartolozzi, Giacomo Indiveri, Robert A. Nawrocki","doi":"10.1038/s41528-025-00512-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-025-00512-6","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"16 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146033482","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-21DOI: 10.1038/s41528-026-00531-x
Sharadrao A. Vanalakar, Mohammad H. Qureshi, Mohammad Mohammadiaria, Sharayu S. Vhanalkar, Jin H. Kim, Shashi B. Srivastava
Retinal degeneration, marked by the progressive loss of photoreceptors, is a leading cause of blindness. Photocapacitive biointerfaces provide a prosthesis-style approach to reestablish light-driven neural activity. Here, we present a flexible Cu₂SnS₃ quantum dots/polymer heterojunction (P3HT:PCBM)-based hybrid biointerface that enables wireless photoelectrical stimulation of neurons. The device is forming a stack whose effective capacitance and photocurrent scale with wavelength, emulating retinal spectral sensitivity. When interfaced with neurons, the heterojunction produces red-light-evoked photocurrents (peak ~4.5 nA at 8 mW cm⁻²) and drives measurable changes in both membrane potential and intracellular calcium (ΔF/F₀ increase of ~10%). The operation is non-thermal and remains in the capacitive regime, while the hybrid architecture enhances charge separation and interfacial storage compared with single-material layers. These results define a flexible photocapacitive platform that achieves visible/NIR neuromodulation. Validation on hippocampal neurons and future studies on retinal ganglion cells advance this platform toward prosthetic vision applications.
视网膜变性以光感受器的逐渐丧失为特征，是导致失明的主要原因。光电容性生物界面提供了一种假体式的方法来重建光驱动的神经活动。在这里，我们提出了一种基于柔性Cu₂SnS₃量子点/聚合物异质结（P3HT:PCBM）的混合生物界面，可以实现神经元的无线光电刺激。该装置模拟视网膜光谱灵敏度，形成有效电容和光电流随波长变化的堆叠。当与神经元连接时，异质结产生红光诱发光电流（8 mW cm - 2时峰值~4.5 nA），并驱动膜电位和细胞内钙的可测量变化（ΔF/F 0增加~10%）。与单一材料层相比，混合结构增强了电荷分离和界面存储。这些结果定义了实现可见/近红外神经调节的柔性光电容平台。海马体神经元的验证和视网膜神经节细胞的未来研究将推动该平台向假肢视觉应用。
{"title":"Smart photocapacitive Cu2SnS3 quantum dots-based flexible biointerface for retinal-inspired photoelectrical stimulation","authors":"Sharadrao A. Vanalakar, Mohammad H. Qureshi, Mohammad Mohammadiaria, Sharayu S. Vhanalkar, Jin H. Kim, Shashi B. Srivastava","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00531-x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00531-x","url":null,"abstract":"Retinal degeneration, marked by the progressive loss of photoreceptors, is a leading cause of blindness. Photocapacitive biointerfaces provide a prosthesis-style approach to reestablish light-driven neural activity. Here, we present a flexible Cu₂SnS₃ quantum dots/polymer heterojunction (P3HT:PCBM)-based hybrid biointerface that enables wireless photoelectrical stimulation of neurons. The device is forming a stack whose effective capacitance and photocurrent scale with wavelength, emulating retinal spectral sensitivity. When interfaced with neurons, the heterojunction produces red-light-evoked photocurrents (peak ~4.5 nA at 8 mW cm⁻²) and drives measurable changes in both membrane potential and intracellular calcium (ΔF/F₀ increase of ~10%). The operation is non-thermal and remains in the capacitive regime, while the hybrid architecture enhances charge separation and interfacial storage compared with single-material layers. These results define a flexible photocapacitive platform that achieves visible/NIR neuromodulation. Validation on hippocampal neurons and future studies on retinal ganglion cells advance this platform toward prosthetic vision applications.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146006034","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Flexible millimeter-wave (mmWave) antennas hold great promise for conformal integration across diverse devices and high-speed, large-channel capacity in 5G/6G wireless communications. Spoof surface plasmon polaritons (SSPPs) structure with periodic grooves is well-suitable for designing miniaturized, flexible and ultra-wideband planar mmWave antennas. However, achieving high-precision fabrication of SSPP configurations with optimal micrometer-scale filling factors using flexible conductive materials remains highly challenging. Herein, we report the high-precision all-Ti3C2-printed flexible ultra-wideband mmWave endfire antennas based on SSPPs for wireless communication. The SSPPs antenna exhibits a wide operating bandwidth of 25–49 GHz, which stems from the reactance properties of the ordered multilayer structure of Ti3C2. The S-parameter and gain can be well maintained even after cyclic bending, owing to the robust adhesion between the polydopamine-modified substrate and the Ti3C2 film. This work pioneers the demo instance of flexible Ti3C2 antenna for high-speed (446.06 Mbps), large-capacity, and low-latency mmWave wireless communication.
{"title":"High-precision All-MXene-printed flexible ultra-wideband millimeter-wave endfire antennas based on spoof surface plasmon polaritons for wireless communication","authors":"Feifei Lin, Hao Ni, Weiwei Zhao, Leilei Liu, Yijie Zhang, Zijing Huang, Wenjin Wang, Qixiang Wang, Tushun Wang, Yan Bai, Ning Ding, Shujuan Liu, Wei Huang, Qiang Zhao","doi":"10.1038/s41528-025-00521-5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-025-00521-5","url":null,"abstract":"Flexible millimeter-wave (mmWave) antennas hold great promise for conformal integration across diverse devices and high-speed, large-channel capacity in 5G/6G wireless communications. Spoof surface plasmon polaritons (SSPPs) structure with periodic grooves is well-suitable for designing miniaturized, flexible and ultra-wideband planar mmWave antennas. However, achieving high-precision fabrication of SSPP configurations with optimal micrometer-scale filling factors using flexible conductive materials remains highly challenging. Herein, we report the high-precision all-Ti3C2-printed flexible ultra-wideband mmWave endfire antennas based on SSPPs for wireless communication. The SSPPs antenna exhibits a wide operating bandwidth of 25–49 GHz, which stems from the reactance properties of the ordered multilayer structure of Ti3C2. The S-parameter and gain can be well maintained even after cyclic bending, owing to the robust adhesion between the polydopamine-modified substrate and the Ti3C2 film. This work pioneers the demo instance of flexible Ti3C2 antenna for high-speed (446.06 Mbps), large-capacity, and low-latency mmWave wireless communication.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"115 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146006033","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-01-20DOI: 10.1038/s41528-026-00534-8
Keonkuk Kim, Kyuha Park, Jihyang Song, Ji Eun Lee, Donghee Son, Jae Sung Son
Thermoelectric devices offer a promising route for waste-heat recovery, yet conventional modules—consisting of multiple pairs of inorganic legs soldered to rigid metal electrodes—are intrinsically brittle and nearly impossible to repair or reconfigure once fabricated. Although recent incorporation of flexible or stretchable polymeric components has improved mechanical deformability, these integrated architectures cannot be modified for new functions or restored. In this study, we propose the concept of Lego-like thermoelectric leg blocks that enable on-demand repair and reconfiguration via modular assembly. Each block operates as an independent unit comprising PDMS-based, self-healing Ag-flake-embedded composite electrodes and 3D-printed BiSbTe and BiTeSe thermoelectric legs, yielding flexible, repairable, and modular devices. Assembled devices preserve performance under bending (radius ≈ 3.4 mm), stretching (40%), and even after cutting and reassembly. Moreover, repeated disassembly/reassembly into diverse geometries proceeds without measurable loss in power output. Our Lego-like blocks provide a versatile thermoelectric platform that combines flexibility, reparability, and reconfigurability.
{"title":"Assemblable thermoelectric Lego blocks for reconfigurable, self-healing, and flexible power generators","authors":"Keonkuk Kim, Kyuha Park, Jihyang Song, Ji Eun Lee, Donghee Son, Jae Sung Son","doi":"10.1038/s41528-026-00534-8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-026-00534-8","url":null,"abstract":"Thermoelectric devices offer a promising route for waste-heat recovery, yet conventional modules—consisting of multiple pairs of inorganic legs soldered to rigid metal electrodes—are intrinsically brittle and nearly impossible to repair or reconfigure once fabricated. Although recent incorporation of flexible or stretchable polymeric components has improved mechanical deformability, these integrated architectures cannot be modified for new functions or restored. In this study, we propose the concept of Lego-like thermoelectric leg blocks that enable on-demand repair and reconfiguration via modular assembly. Each block operates as an independent unit comprising PDMS-based, self-healing Ag-flake-embedded composite electrodes and 3D-printed BiSbTe and BiTeSe thermoelectric legs, yielding flexible, repairable, and modular devices. Assembled devices preserve performance under bending (radius ≈ 3.4 mm), stretching (40%), and even after cutting and reassembly. Moreover, repeated disassembly/reassembly into diverse geometries proceeds without measurable loss in power output. Our Lego-like blocks provide a versatile thermoelectric platform that combines flexibility, reparability, and reconfigurability.","PeriodicalId":48528,"journal":{"name":"npj Flexible Electronics","volume":"67 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":14.6,"publicationDate":"2026-01-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146006038","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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