Pub Date : 2024-10-28DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3487147
Marco Pomponio;Archita Hati;Craig Nelson
In this paper, we present a direct digital measurement system capable of simultaneously measuring phase noise, amplitude noise, and Allan deviation with and without cross-correlation. The residual phase noise of the single-channel system achieves $mathscr {L}left ({{1 text {Hz}}}right)~ textrm {=} -143 text {dBc/Hz}$ for a 10 MHz input signal and an Allan deviation noise floor of $3.2 times 10^{-15}$ at 1 second averaging time ( $tau $ ). The system’s performance improves as expected with cross-correlation, resulting in an average-limited residual white noise floor of −185 dBc/Hz after only a few minutes of averaging, an improvement of 30 dB compared to a single-channel system. It also reaches an average limited flicker phase noise floor of $mathscr {L}left ({{1 text {Hz}}}right) ~textrm {=} -160 text {dBc/Hz}$ within two days, with an Allan deviation of $5 times 10^{-16}$ @ $tau ~textrm {=}1 text {second}$ . To our knowledge, this represents the lowest noise performance ever reported for a digital measurement system. Our solution is based on a pair of high-performance analog-to-digital converters and a single system-on-a-chip (SoC) with multiple processors and a field programmable gate array (FPGA). The architecture allows for processing all data samples in real-time without dead-time between calculation frames, enabling the fastest averaging possible during cross-correlation.
{"title":"Direct Digital Simultaneous Phase-Amplitude Noise and Allan Deviation Measurement System","authors":"Marco Pomponio;Archita Hati;Craig Nelson","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3487147","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3487147","url":null,"abstract":"In this paper, we present a direct digital measurement system capable of simultaneously measuring phase noise, amplitude noise, and Allan deviation with and without cross-correlation. The residual phase noise of the single-channel system achieves \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$mathscr {L}left ({{1 text {Hz}}}right)~ textrm {=} -143 text {dBc/Hz}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 for a 10 MHz input signal and an Allan deviation noise floor of \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$3.2 times 10^{-15}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 at 1 second averaging time (\u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$tau $ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000). The system’s performance improves as expected with cross-correlation, resulting in an average-limited residual white noise floor of −185 dBc/Hz after only a few minutes of averaging, an improvement of 30 dB compared to a single-channel system. It also reaches an average limited flicker phase noise floor of \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$mathscr {L}left ({{1 text {Hz}}}right) ~textrm {=} -160 text {dBc/Hz}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 within two days, with an Allan deviation of \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$5 times 10^{-16}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 @ \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$tau ~textrm {=}1 text {second}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000. To our knowledge, this represents the lowest noise performance ever reported for a digital measurement system. Our solution is based on a pair of high-performance analog-to-digital converters and a single system-on-a-chip (SoC) with multiple processors and a field programmable gate array (FPGA). The architecture allows for processing all data samples in real-time without dead-time between calculation frames, enabling the fastest averaging possible during cross-correlation.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"160-170"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10737107","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142600120","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-10-07DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3475348
Etienne Lemaire;Atilla Atli;Dominique Certon
This paper details some characterization results of selected Rochelle salt based transducers previously or recently fabricated using various techniques. Several elements of the expected increasing lifetime are shown. Polarization results comparing monocrystalline and polycrystalline structures show that the former is ferroelectric and strongly piezoelectric as expected. The second behaves as a piezoelectric and is strongly electrostrictive, reaching a significant displacement when subjected to high voltage. Because Rochelle salt could be the lowest environmental footprint ferroelectric and piezoelectric, it is an ecological smart material. It may have some limitations, but also circular and recoverable highly interesting properties. Thus, the possibility of revisiting the Rochelle salt based technology for disposable, ecological or eco-designed efficient acoustic transducer is here illustrated and discussed.
{"title":"Rochelle Salt Revisited for Eco-Designed Ultrasonic Transducers","authors":"Etienne Lemaire;Atilla Atli;Dominique Certon","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3475348","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3475348","url":null,"abstract":"This paper details some characterization results of selected Rochelle salt based transducers previously or recently fabricated using various techniques. Several elements of the expected increasing lifetime are shown. Polarization results comparing monocrystalline and polycrystalline structures show that the former is ferroelectric and strongly piezoelectric as expected. The second behaves as a piezoelectric and is strongly electrostrictive, reaching a significant displacement when subjected to high voltage. Because Rochelle salt could be the lowest environmental footprint ferroelectric and piezoelectric, it is an ecological smart material. It may have some limitations, but also circular and recoverable highly interesting properties. Thus, the possibility of revisiting the Rochelle salt based technology for disposable, ecological or eco-designed efficient acoustic transducer is here illustrated and discussed.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"171-176"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10707200","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142600121","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We present a technique for three-dimensional (3D) object reconstruction utilizing an ultrasonic array sensor and a variational autoencoder (VAE) within a high-interference environment. In scenarios where optical instruments such as cameras and LiDAR are impractical, the utilization of air-coupled ultrasonic waves for 3D measurements has emerged as a viable alternative. Nevertheless, deploying this technology in high-interference settings, particularly outdoor environments, has presented significant challenges. To tackle this challenge, we have developed and established a methodology for the 3D reconstruction of stationary objects by combining the time-of-flight point cloud data acquired through beamforming with the deep learning model VAE. This study proceeds by elucidating the procedure for conducting beamforming and measuring distances using ultrasonic waves. Subsequently, we expound upon an experimental methodology that employs 3D object reconstruction and associated techniques. Finally, we present the results obtained from attaching an ultrasonic sensor to a utility pole and conducting ultrasonic measurements. Our investigation focuses on four distinct types of objects: boxes, motorbikes, humans, and reflectors. The measurement system was positioned 5 m above the ground on a utility pole situated alongside the road. The objects selected for measurement were situated in stationary positions within a $3~text {m}^{{3}}$ area, with a maximum distance of 10 m from the utility pole. The objective of this study is to assess the efficacy of ultrasonic measurements and object reconstruction techniques under these specified conditions. The results indicate a precision of 0.939, a recall of 0.868, and an F-value of 0.902, which are considered sufficient for the application of ultrasonic waves.
{"title":"3-D Object Reconstruction From Outdoor Ultrasonic Image and Variation Autoencoder","authors":"Ryotaro Ohara;Yuto Yasuda;Riku Hamabe;Shun Sato;Ishii Toru;Shintaro Izumi;Hiroshi Kawaguchi","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3466090","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3466090","url":null,"abstract":"We present a technique for three-dimensional (3D) object reconstruction utilizing an ultrasonic array sensor and a variational autoencoder (VAE) within a high-interference environment. In scenarios where optical instruments such as cameras and LiDAR are impractical, the utilization of air-coupled ultrasonic waves for 3D measurements has emerged as a viable alternative. Nevertheless, deploying this technology in high-interference settings, particularly outdoor environments, has presented significant challenges. To tackle this challenge, we have developed and established a methodology for the 3D reconstruction of stationary objects by combining the time-of-flight point cloud data acquired through beamforming with the deep learning model VAE. This study proceeds by elucidating the procedure for conducting beamforming and measuring distances using ultrasonic waves. Subsequently, we expound upon an experimental methodology that employs 3D object reconstruction and associated techniques. Finally, we present the results obtained from attaching an ultrasonic sensor to a utility pole and conducting ultrasonic measurements. Our investigation focuses on four distinct types of objects: boxes, motorbikes, humans, and reflectors. The measurement system was positioned 5 m above the ground on a utility pole situated alongside the road. The objects selected for measurement were situated in stationary positions within a \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$3~text {m}^{{3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 area, with a maximum distance of 10 m from the utility pole. The objective of this study is to assess the efficacy of ultrasonic measurements and object reconstruction techniques under these specified conditions. The results indicate a precision of 0.939, a recall of 0.868, and an F-value of 0.902, which are considered sufficient for the application of ultrasonic waves.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"140-149"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10685487","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142376626","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-09-12DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3459858
Thong Huynh;Trym Haakon Eggen;Lars Hoff
Tissue harmonic imaging requires good control of the nonlinearity in the ultrasound probe, as transmitted second harmonics from the probe may interfere with tissue harmonics and degrade image quality. We have studied the nonlinearity in four different medical ultrasound probes by measuring the capacitive part of their electrical impedances under varying electric fields, at frequencies well below and above the resonances. The probes were made with two different piezoelectric materials, piezoceramic PZT and single-crystal PMN-PT, with either soft backing operating at half-wavelength resonance or hard backing operating at quarter-wavelength resonance. When the applied electric field amplitude E was increased from $mathrm {0.05~V/mu m}$ to $mathrm {0.5~V/mu m}$ , we observed an increase in both the capacitance at high frequency, interpreted as clamped conditions, and at low frequency, interpreted as free conditions. This is a nonlinear phenomenon as these capacitances will not change in the linear regime. The increase in free capacitance was from 4 to 10 times larger than the increase in clamped capacitance for all the investigated probes. This indicates a stronger nonlinearity for the free capacitance. At the low-frequency excitation, we observed distortion in the current passing through the acoustic stack corresponding to a relative second harmonic level of −20 dB. We conclude that the nonlinear impedance of the acoustic stack in the investigated probes was primarily caused by nonlinearities in the mechanical coefficients, while contributions from dielectric nonlinearity were negligible.
{"title":"Investigation of Non-Linearities in Medical Ultrasound Imaging Probes by Characterizing Free and Clamped Capacitances","authors":"Thong Huynh;Trym Haakon Eggen;Lars Hoff","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3459858","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3459858","url":null,"abstract":"Tissue harmonic imaging requires good control of the nonlinearity in the ultrasound probe, as transmitted second harmonics from the probe may interfere with tissue harmonics and degrade image quality. We have studied the nonlinearity in four different medical ultrasound probes by measuring the capacitive part of their electrical impedances under varying electric fields, at frequencies well below and above the resonances. The probes were made with two different piezoelectric materials, piezoceramic PZT and single-crystal PMN-PT, with either soft backing operating at half-wavelength resonance or hard backing operating at quarter-wavelength resonance. When the applied electric field amplitude E was increased from \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$mathrm {0.05~V/mu m}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000 to \u0000<inline-formula> <tex-math>$mathrm {0.5~V/mu m}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>\u0000, we observed an increase in both the capacitance at high frequency, interpreted as clamped conditions, and at low frequency, interpreted as free conditions. This is a nonlinear phenomenon as these capacitances will not change in the linear regime. The increase in free capacitance was from 4 to 10 times larger than the increase in clamped capacitance for all the investigated probes. This indicates a stronger nonlinearity for the free capacitance. At the low-frequency excitation, we observed distortion in the current passing through the acoustic stack corresponding to a relative second harmonic level of −20 dB. We conclude that the nonlinear impedance of the acoustic stack in the investigated probes was primarily caused by nonlinearities in the mechanical coefficients, while contributions from dielectric nonlinearity were negligible.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"116-125"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-09-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10679659","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142368493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-09-12DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3457503
Anabella Giacomozzi;Jose Benedito;Tomás E. Gómez Álvarez-Arenas;Jose V. García-Perez
In the context of the ongoing digital revolution, the food industry grapples with significant challenges concerning quality control, safety, production efficiency, and economic viability. Tackling these challenges requires analyzing a large volume of samples-preferably the whole production-to extract the maximum amount of information, facilitating food processing optimization, quality assurance, safety protocols, and minimizing the energetic impact. Developing monitoring systems for the non-invasive, accurate and real-time measurement of compositional properties, texture, and the detection of foreign bodies throughout the entire production remains a challenge in the agri-food sector. This challenge reflects that these properties affect both quality and food safety but also that current technologies are not capable of monitoring them at an industrial level. Over recent decades, ultrasound technology has garnered significant attention from stakeholders across the food supply chain owing to its potential to revolutionize food industry automation. Ultrasound inspection offers numerous advantages, including the rapid, precise, and cost-effective assessment of product properties, as well as the real-time monitoring of internal quality attributes across various stages of food processing. By interacting with matter, sound waves provide valuable insights into the composition, structure, and physical state of food constituents through changes in velocity, attenuation, and spectral response. This review summarizes recent findings in the use of air-coupled ultrasound inspection for ensuring food quality and safety control.
{"title":"Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Inspection of Foods: A Review","authors":"Anabella Giacomozzi;Jose Benedito;Tomás E. Gómez Álvarez-Arenas;Jose V. García-Perez","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3457503","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3457503","url":null,"abstract":"In the context of the ongoing digital revolution, the food industry grapples with significant challenges concerning quality control, safety, production efficiency, and economic viability. Tackling these challenges requires analyzing a large volume of samples-preferably the whole production-to extract the maximum amount of information, facilitating food processing optimization, quality assurance, safety protocols, and minimizing the energetic impact. Developing monitoring systems for the non-invasive, accurate and real-time measurement of compositional properties, texture, and the detection of foreign bodies throughout the entire production remains a challenge in the agri-food sector. This challenge reflects that these properties affect both quality and food safety but also that current technologies are not capable of monitoring them at an industrial level. Over recent decades, ultrasound technology has garnered significant attention from stakeholders across the food supply chain owing to its potential to revolutionize food industry automation. Ultrasound inspection offers numerous advantages, including the rapid, precise, and cost-effective assessment of product properties, as well as the real-time monitoring of internal quality attributes across various stages of food processing. By interacting with matter, sound waves provide valuable insights into the composition, structure, and physical state of food constituents through changes in velocity, attenuation, and spectral response. This review summarizes recent findings in the use of air-coupled ultrasound inspection for ensuring food quality and safety control.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"100-115"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-09-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10679167","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142320441","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-08-19DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3445868
Håvard Kjellmo Arnestad;Ole Marius Hoel Rindal;Andreas Austeng;Sven Peter Näsholm
In ultrasound imaging, speckle originates from a large amount of sub-resolution scatterers within the medium. In idealized cases, the speckle envelope statistics follow a Rayleigh distribution, but in practical pulse-echo imaging, the distribution depends on both the imaging system and the underlying tissue structure. Estimating envelope statistics is part of quantitative ultrasound workflows and is also important for image quality assessment as it relates to lesion and tissue detectability. A concrete example is the generalized contrast-to-noise ratio (gCNR), which is a functional of two pixel-value probability density functions (PDFs) from different speckle regions. Such speckle PDFs have, by convention, been estimated from data using histograms, but the accuracy of these estimates can be affected by the nontrivial selection and tuning of the binning parameters. However, the statistics literature widely advocates kernel density estimation (KDE) as a better alternative to histogram-based approaches. In this article, we propose applying a KDE-based method to estimate speckle PDFs in medical ultrasound imaging. The method is practically tuning-free and leverages the Box-Cox transformation to achieve best-in-class performance across a wide range of test cases, and is also robust in cases where gCNR estimation may otherwise fail, such as for skewed distributions that may arise with adaptive beamformers. Furthermore, this work highlights theoretical aspects related to the estimation of PDFs and derived quantities, including the gCNR.
在超声成像中，斑点源于介质中大量的亚分辨率散射体。在理想情况下，斑点包络统计遵循瑞利分布，但在实际脉冲回波成像中，其分布取决于成像系统和底层组织结构。估算包络统计是定量超声工作流程的一部分，对于图像质量评估也很重要，因为这关系到病变和组织的可探测性。一个具体的例子是广义对比度-噪声比（gCNR），它是来自不同斑点区域的两个像素值概率密度函数（PDF）的函数。按照惯例，这种斑点概率密度函数是使用直方图从数据中估算出来的，但这些估算的准确性可能会受到分选参数的非线性选择和调整的影响。然而，统计文献普遍认为核密度估计（KDE）是基于直方图方法的更好替代方法。在本文中，我们建议在医学超声成像中应用基于 KDE 的方法来估计斑点 PDF。该方法实际上无需调整，并利用 Box-Cox 变换在广泛的测试案例中实现了同类最佳的性能，而且在 gCNR 估计可能失败的情况下也很稳健，例如自适应波束成形器可能出现的偏斜分布。此外，这项工作还强调了与估计 PDF 和派生量（包括 gCNR）相关的理论方面。
{"title":"Robust Non-Parametric Estimation of Speckle Probability Densities and gCNR","authors":"Håvard Kjellmo Arnestad;Ole Marius Hoel Rindal;Andreas Austeng;Sven Peter Näsholm","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3445868","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3445868","url":null,"abstract":"In ultrasound imaging, speckle originates from a large amount of sub-resolution scatterers within the medium. In idealized cases, the speckle envelope statistics follow a Rayleigh distribution, but in practical pulse-echo imaging, the distribution depends on both the imaging system and the underlying tissue structure. Estimating envelope statistics is part of quantitative ultrasound workflows and is also important for image quality assessment as it relates to lesion and tissue detectability. A concrete example is the generalized contrast-to-noise ratio (gCNR), which is a functional of two pixel-value probability density functions (PDFs) from different speckle regions. Such speckle PDFs have, by convention, been estimated from data using histograms, but the accuracy of these estimates can be affected by the nontrivial selection and tuning of the binning parameters. However, the statistics literature widely advocates kernel density estimation (KDE) as a better alternative to histogram-based approaches. In this article, we propose applying a KDE-based method to estimate speckle PDFs in medical ultrasound imaging. The method is practically tuning-free and leverages the Box-Cox transformation to achieve best-in-class performance across a wide range of test cases, and is also robust in cases where gCNR estimation may otherwise fail, such as for skewed distributions that may arise with adaptive beamformers. Furthermore, this work highlights theoretical aspects related to the estimation of PDFs and derived quantities, including the gCNR.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"89-99"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10638550","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142090778","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-07-24DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3433316
Lola Fariñas;Domingo Sancho-Knapik;José J. Peguero-Pina;Eustaquio Gil-Pelegrín;Tomás E. Gómez Álvarez-Arenas
This paper reviews the origin, development and use of air-coupled ultrasonic techniques for the study of plant leaf tissues and their water relations. The two techniques proposed so far are included: Non-Contact Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy and Non-Resonant Time Domain Transmittance. While both are completely non-invasive, non-destructive and fast, the former has been used to determine water potential, turgor loss point and differential behavior of various leaf tissues, and has been extensively tested for different species, both in vivo and ex vivo in parallel with in-field experiments; while the latter has recently been proposed as a universal technique that can be applied to plant leaves regardless of the possibility of exciting thickness resonances.
{"title":"Origin, Development, and Applications of Air-Coupled Broadband Ultrasounds for the Study of Tissues and Water Relations in Plant Leaves: A Review","authors":"Lola Fariñas;Domingo Sancho-Knapik;José J. Peguero-Pina;Eustaquio Gil-Pelegrín;Tomás E. Gómez Álvarez-Arenas","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3433316","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3433316","url":null,"abstract":"This paper reviews the origin, development and use of air-coupled ultrasonic techniques for the study of plant leaf tissues and their water relations. The two techniques proposed so far are included: Non-Contact Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy and Non-Resonant Time Domain Transmittance. While both are completely non-invasive, non-destructive and fast, the former has been used to determine water potential, turgor loss point and differential behavior of various leaf tissues, and has been extensively tested for different species, both in vivo and ex vivo in parallel with in-field experiments; while the latter has recently been proposed as a universal technique that can be applied to plant leaves regardless of the possibility of exciting thickness resonances.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"77-88"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10608179","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141965502","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-06-14DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3413604
Victor Takahashi;Michaël Lematre;Jérôme Fortineau;Marc Lethiecq
Paintings are intricate structures made up of multiple layers of materials that possess different properties and thicknesses. Due to their fragility, they can be damaged by exposure to various environmental factors such very large amplitude vibrations, as well as temperature and humidity variations. Restorers use various techniques such as raking light, x-rays, infrared, and UV to gather information about the condition of the artwork. Unlike these methods, ultrasonic techniques use elastic waves and can thus provide information about the mechanical properties of the materials and their interfaces. The goal of this work is twofold. First, it consists in numerically analyzing the sensitivity of elastic parameters of painting layers through their influence on the acoustic transmission coefficient and dispersion curves. Then, an experimental device is set up to confirm some of these results by the determination of the values of the elastic parameters of the constituent layers of paintings. To this aim, we have developed an original association of numerical and experimental methods for characterization and determination of the layer elastic parameters of some materials used in paintings. A matrix stiffness model associated to a genetic algorithm are used for the numerical study and optimization process between the theoretical transmission coefficient and the experimental one. Then, focused Air-Coupled Transducers (ACTs) in conjunction with a rotary motor are used to perform measurements of transmitted signal amplitude on several components used in paintings under various angles of incidence. Our results concerning the determination of elastic parameters values on various materials including plexiglass (PMMA), acrylic paint, varnish, gesso and wood, taken as single plates, and bi-layered structures, are strongly supported by theoretical results obtained using the matrix stiffness model.
{"title":"Determination of Elastic Parameters of Thin Layers Used in Paintings by Air-Coupled Ultrasound Transmission Measurements Under Varying Incidence","authors":"Victor Takahashi;Michaël Lematre;Jérôme Fortineau;Marc Lethiecq","doi":"10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3413604","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3413604","url":null,"abstract":"Paintings are intricate structures made up of multiple layers of materials that possess different properties and thicknesses. Due to their fragility, they can be damaged by exposure to various environmental factors such very large amplitude vibrations, as well as temperature and humidity variations. Restorers use various techniques such as raking light, x-rays, infrared, and UV to gather information about the condition of the artwork. Unlike these methods, ultrasonic techniques use elastic waves and can thus provide information about the mechanical properties of the materials and their interfaces. The goal of this work is twofold. First, it consists in numerically analyzing the sensitivity of elastic parameters of painting layers through their influence on the acoustic transmission coefficient and dispersion curves. Then, an experimental device is set up to confirm some of these results by the determination of the values of the elastic parameters of the constituent layers of paintings. To this aim, we have developed an original association of numerical and experimental methods for characterization and determination of the layer elastic parameters of some materials used in paintings. A matrix stiffness model associated to a genetic algorithm are used for the numerical study and optimization process between the theoretical transmission coefficient and the experimental one. Then, focused Air-Coupled Transducers (ACTs) in conjunction with a rotary motor are used to perform measurements of transmitted signal amplitude on several components used in paintings under various angles of incidence. Our results concerning the determination of elastic parameters values on various materials including plexiglass (PMMA), acrylic paint, varnish, gesso and wood, taken as single plates, and bi-layered structures, are strongly supported by theoretical results obtained using the matrix stiffness model.","PeriodicalId":73301,"journal":{"name":"IEEE open journal of ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control","volume":"4 ","pages":"126-139"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=10558716","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142377117","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-06-12DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3413603
Tony Merrien;Pierre Didier;Emmanuelle Algré
In this paper, a linear lumped-element equivalent circuit model (ECM) for ultrasonic laterally transduced electrostatic bulk-mode air-coupled resonant micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) is described. A single-crystal silicon (SCS) square plate with T-shaped tethers is considered as the geometry of interest with a one-sided electrostatic actuation. This type of sensor can be used for sensitive mass sensing of airborne particles and possesses a large active surface with in-plane vibration modes in the ultrasonic frequency range. Firstly, the eigensolutions and eigenvectors of the problem are obtained using analytical equations and compared with finite-element modeling (FEM) solutions. Secondly, using modal analysis, the number of degrees of freedom is reduced and individual solutions are provided for each vibration mode, leading to various effective masses, stiffnesses and dampings. The first order Taylor expansion of both the electrical current equation and the electrostatic force applied on the resonator allows one to obtain expressions for the additional stiffness and the electro-mechanical transformation coefficient linked to the membrane actuation. Based on theses results, single-input single output (SISO) equivalent circuits are established using electro-mechanical and Butterworth-Van Dyke (BVD) approaches. Electrical admittance simulations resulting from different in-plane vibration modes are proven to be in excellent agreement with FEM simulations. Finally, a numerical mass sensing application is described to evaluate the relevance of both the model and the resonator design to act as a microbalance. The proposed model can be used to design, predict, analyze and optimize the behavior of highly sensitive air-coupled ultrasonic bulk-mode SCS MEMS for various physical applications.
本文描述了超声横向传导静电体模空气耦合谐振微机电系统（MEMS）的线性叠加元件等效电路模型（ECM）。单晶硅 (SCS) 方板与 T 形拴绳被视为具有单面静电驱动的相关几何形状。这种传感器可用于空气颗粒的灵敏质量传感，并具有较大的活动表面，在超声波频率范围内具有面内振动模式。首先，利用分析方程获得了问题的特征解和特征向量，并与有限元建模（FEM）解进行了比较。其次，通过模态分析，减少了自由度的数量，并为每种振动模式提供了单独的解决方案，从而得出各种有效质量、刚度和阻尼。通过对施加在谐振器上的电流方程和静电力进行一阶泰勒展开，可以获得与膜致动相关的附加刚度和电动机械转换系数的表达式。根据这些结果，利用电子机械和巴特沃斯-范戴克（BVD）方法建立了单输入单输出（SISO）等效电路。不同面内振动模式产生的电导纳模拟结果与有限元模拟结果非常吻合。最后，描述了一个数值质量传感应用，以评估模型和谐振器设计作为微天平的相关性。所提出的模型可用于设计、预测、分析和优化高灵敏度空气耦合超声波体模 SCS MEMS 的行为，适用于各种物理应用。
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Pub Date : 2024-06-10DOI: 10.1109/OJUFFC.2024.3411578
Anders Emil Vrålstad;Ole Marius Hoel Rindal;Tore Grüner Bjåstad;Svein-Erik Måsøy
In beamforming, retrospective change in sound speed and recalculation of focusing delays is attractive both for improving image quality and for using it in an iterative image quality optimization process. Modifying the speed of sound retrospectively for focused transmits is challenging because the transmit focus position is a function of sound speed error. The virtual source model is a common way to calculate the transmit focusing delays where using the correct transmit focus position is imperative. In this paper, we provide the methods necessary to perform a retrospective sound-speed correction by compensating the receive grid and by calculating the effective transmit focus needed to perform proper synthetic transmit focusing. To evaluate the efficacy of our method, we simulate wave propagation and measure the resolution of in vitro images using both phased and curvilinear arrays. The results of the suggested virtual source estimation method match the simulated wave propagation for multiple F-numbers and both positive and negative sound speed errors. We compare beamformed images using correct/incorrect sound speeds and correct/incorrect virtual source positions. The results demonstrate that the Corrected Virtual Source (CVS) method generates artifact-free images with superior quality compared to images with incorrect sound speed. Furthermore, the image beamformed with the correct sound speed, but incorrect virtual source position, exhibits image artifacts and inferior focusing quality compared to the CVS image.
在波束成形中，追溯性地改变声速和重新计算聚焦延迟对提高图像质量和在迭代图像质量优化过程中使用都很有吸引力。由于发射聚焦位置是声速误差的函数，因此追溯性地修改聚焦发射的声速具有挑战性。虚拟声源模型是计算发射聚焦延迟的常用方法，在这种情况下，必须使用正确的发射聚焦位置。在本文中，我们提供了通过补偿接收网格和计算正确合成发射聚焦所需的有效发射聚焦来进行声速回溯校正的必要方法。为了评估我们方法的有效性，我们模拟了波的传播，并使用相位阵列和曲线阵列测量了体外图像的分辨率。所建议的虚拟声源估算方法的结果与模拟的多 F 数和正负声速误差的波传播相吻合。我们比较了使用正确/不正确声速和正确/不正确虚拟声源位置的波束形成图像。结果表明，与声速错误的图像相比，校正虚拟声源（CVS）方法生成的无伪影图像质量更高。此外，与 CVS 图像相比，采用正确声速但虚拟声源位置不正确的波束成形图像会出现图像伪影，聚焦质量较差。
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