Pub Date : 2026-03-25DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101151
Chuchu Li, Qi Cheng
This study investigates bilingual language control across comprehension and production. In three experiments, Chinese–English bilinguals alternated between tasks on every trial. In the comprehension task, participants judged the meaning of a written word (Experiment 1) or a spoken word (Experiments 2 and 3) in either language. In the production task, they named pictures in only one language (Experiments 1 and 2) or in either language (Experiment 3), with half of the trials involving language switching. Thus, salient visual language cues were available only in Experiment 1, and within-production language switching occurred only in Experiment 3. Language switch costs from comprehension to production emerged only in Experiment 2, where spoken word comprehension was paired with single-language production. These findings suggest that reduced saliency of language cues encourages a shared language control mechanism across comprehension and production when within-production control demands are low, supporting the adaptive nature of bilingual language control.
{"title":"Adaptive language control between comprehension and production in bilinguals","authors":"Chuchu Li, Qi Cheng","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101151","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101151","url":null,"abstract":"This study investigates bilingual language control across comprehension and production. In three experiments, Chinese–English bilinguals alternated between tasks on every trial. In the comprehension task, participants judged the meaning of a written word (Experiment 1) or a spoken word (Experiments 2 and 3) in either language. In the production task, they named pictures in only one language (Experiments 1 and 2) or in either language (Experiment 3), with half of the trials involving language switching. Thus, salient visual language cues were available only in Experiment 1, and within-production language switching occurred only in Experiment 3. Language switch costs from comprehension to production emerged only in Experiment 2, where spoken word comprehension was paired with single-language production. These findings suggest that reduced saliency of language cues encourages a shared language control mechanism across comprehension and production when within-production control demands are low, supporting the adaptive nature of bilingual language control.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"58 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147519315","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-25DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101187
Katie Von Holzen, Marie Schnieders, Sophia Wulfert, Holger Hopp
This study tests how form overlap with the L1 influences young learners’ ability to recognize L2 words from continuous speech before they receive classroom instruction in English as a foreign language (EFL). German 6- to 9-year-olds were tested on their ability to recognize words in English utterances that overlapped in form with their German translation equivalents (e.g., cognate words, milk-Milch /mɪlk/ – /mɪlx/) or did not (e.g., non-cognate words, smoke – Rauch, /smoʊk/ – /raʊ̯x/). German form similarity neither influenced performance at the group level nor when differences in individual German skills were considered. This pattern of results remained even when, in Experiment 2, the German word form was pre-activated visually. Unlike adults’, pre-EFL learners’ recognition of words in continuous speech is not affected by form similarity to German, which we link to differences in metalinguistic awareness and the role of form-meaning mappings, especially in early FL learning.
{"title":"Word recognition in pre-foreign language learners: The role of form overlap","authors":"Katie Von Holzen, Marie Schnieders, Sophia Wulfert, Holger Hopp","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101187","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101187","url":null,"abstract":"This study tests how form overlap with the L1 influences young learners’ ability to recognize L2 words from continuous speech before they receive classroom instruction in English as a foreign language (EFL). German 6- to 9-year-olds were tested on their ability to recognize words in English utterances that overlapped in form with their German translation equivalents (e.g., cognate words, milk-Milch /mɪlk/ – /mɪlx/) or did not (e.g., non-cognate words, smoke – Rauch, /smoʊk/ – /raʊ̯x/). German form similarity neither influenced performance at the group level nor when differences in individual German skills were considered. This pattern of results remained even when, in Experiment 2, the German word form was pre-activated visually. Unlike adults’, pre-EFL learners’ recognition of words in continuous speech is not affected by form similarity to German, which we link to differences in metalinguistic awareness and the role of form-meaning mappings, especially in early FL learning.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"58 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147519275","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study explores the association between school-based foreign language (FL) instruction and mathematical achievement among 15-year-old students, using data from the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Two complementary analyses were conducted: a large-scale model ( n = 300,656) examining the relationship between time spent in FL learning and maths performance across 73 countries and a machine learning (ML) approach (random forest (RF); n = 53,459) identifying specific programme features that most strongly influence this relationship. Results show that longer exposure to FL instruction was associated with a modest but statistically robust increase in maths scores ( β = 0.08, p < .001), even after controlling for socioeconomic and contextual factors. Among programme characteristics, the integration of multicultural curricula emerged as a prominent predictor of higher maths performance. These findings indicate that sustained, culturally enriched FL learning is positively associated with numeracy outcomes, with implications for equity in academic achievement and cross-disciplinary performance.
本研究利用2018年国际学生评估项目（PISA）的数据，探讨了15岁学生的学校外语教学（FL）与数学成绩之间的关系。进行了两项互补分析：一项大型模型（n = 300,656）研究了73个国家的FL学习时间与数学成绩之间的关系，另一项是机器学习（ML）方法(随机森林（RF）；N = 53,459)，确定对这种关系影响最大的具体方案特征。结果表明，即使在控制了社会经济和背景因素之后，长时间接触外语教学与数学成绩的适度但统计上强劲的增长有关（β = 0.08, p < .001）。在课程特征中，多元文化课程的整合成为高等数学成绩的重要预测因素。这些发现表明，持续的、文化丰富的外语学习与计算成绩呈正相关，这对学术成就和跨学科表现的公平性有影响。
{"title":"Unlocking mathematical potential through school-based language learning: Insights from PISA 2018","authors":"Alejandra Nucette, Britta Biedermann, Suze Leitão, Takeshi Hamamura","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101138","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101138","url":null,"abstract":"This study explores the association between school-based foreign language (FL) instruction and mathematical achievement among 15-year-old students, using data from the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Two complementary analyses were conducted: a large-scale model ( <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 300,656) examining the relationship between time spent in FL learning and maths performance across 73 countries and a machine learning (ML) approach (random forest (RF); <jats:italic>n</jats:italic> = 53,459) identifying specific programme features that most strongly influence this relationship. Results show that longer exposure to FL instruction was associated with a modest but statistically robust increase in maths scores ( <jats:italic>β</jats:italic> = 0.08, <jats:italic>p</jats:italic> < .001), even after controlling for socioeconomic and contextual factors. Among programme characteristics, the integration of multicultural curricula emerged as a prominent predictor of higher maths performance. These findings indicate that sustained, culturally enriched FL learning is positively associated with numeracy outcomes, with implications for equity in academic achievement and cross-disciplinary performance.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"191 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147519277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-24DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101199
Jonah Lack, Hyun Kyung Lee, Junghwan Maeng, Yoonsang Song
This study investigated whether L2 processing of derived words engages biphasic morphological decomposition, comprising morpho-orthographic segmentation followed by morpho-semantic integration, as L1 processing does. Using an overt priming paradigm (SOA = 300 ms), ERP responses were compared across morphological (e.g., farmer – farm ), orthographic (e.g., cashew – cash ) and semantic (e.g., doctor – nurse ) priming conditions in native and L2 speakers. Results revealed that both language groups exhibited distinct priming effects for morphologically related prime–target pairs across the early and late N400 windows, reflecting morpho-orthographic segmentation and morpho-semantic integration, respectively, rather than additive effects of form and meaning overlap. However, the late negativity effect, reflecting intensified lateral inhibition among similar orthographic representations, was observed during orthographic priming only in native speakers, suggesting less efficient inhibitory control in L2 processing. These findings are discussed within the framework of the Shallow Structure Hypothesis, which has provided a theoretical basis for many previous L2 studies of derived-word processing.
{"title":"EEG temporal dynamics during morphological decomposition of derived words in L2","authors":"Jonah Lack, Hyun Kyung Lee, Junghwan Maeng, Yoonsang Song","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101199","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101199","url":null,"abstract":"This study investigated whether L2 processing of derived words engages biphasic morphological decomposition, comprising morpho-orthographic segmentation followed by morpho-semantic integration, as L1 processing does. Using an overt priming paradigm (SOA = 300 ms), ERP responses were compared across morphological (e.g., <jats:italic>farmer</jats:italic> – <jats:italic>farm</jats:italic> ), orthographic (e.g., <jats:italic>cashew</jats:italic> – <jats:italic>cash</jats:italic> ) and semantic (e.g., <jats:italic>doctor</jats:italic> – <jats:italic>nurse</jats:italic> ) priming conditions in native and L2 speakers. Results revealed that both language groups exhibited distinct priming effects for morphologically related prime–target pairs across the early and late N400 windows, reflecting morpho-orthographic segmentation and morpho-semantic integration, respectively, rather than additive effects of form and meaning overlap. However, the late negativity effect, reflecting intensified lateral inhibition among similar orthographic representations, was observed during orthographic priming only in native speakers, suggesting less efficient inhibitory control in L2 processing. These findings are discussed within the framework of the Shallow Structure Hypothesis, which has provided a theoretical basis for many previous L2 studies of derived-word processing.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"7 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147519288","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-02DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101096
Irina Elgort, Lingli Du, Anna Siyanova-Chanturia, Mengzhu Yan
Cross-language figurative meaning activation in idiom processing has been observed in primed lexical and semantic decision tasks, but not in text reading. To study first-language figurative idiom meaning activation in second-language reading, we created and tested a novel contextual idiom-priming paradigm and conducted an eye-tracking experiment with Chinese–English immersion and non-immersion bilinguals, and English-speaking controls. Three counterbalanced conditions were created: in English texts, the meaning probe was preceded by a close or paraphrased translation of a related Chinese-only idiom, or an unrelated phrase. The processing of the probe was influenced by figurative meanings of Chinese-only idioms for both groups of bilinguals, but not for monolingual controls, evidencing non-selective language processing beyond single words. There was no difference in the patterns of activation between close and paraphrased translations, suggesting that exact lexical overlap may not be necessary for cross-language activation of idioms. Different processing patterns were observed for immersion and non-immersion bilinguals.
{"title":"Cross-language activation of figurative meanings of translated L1 idioms in L2 reading: An eye-tracking study","authors":"Irina Elgort, Lingli Du, Anna Siyanova-Chanturia, Mengzhu Yan","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101096","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101096","url":null,"abstract":"Cross-language figurative meaning activation in idiom processing has been observed in primed lexical and semantic decision tasks, but not in text reading. To study first-language figurative idiom meaning activation in second-language reading, we created and tested a novel contextual idiom-priming paradigm and conducted an eye-tracking experiment with Chinese–English immersion and non-immersion bilinguals, and English-speaking controls. Three counterbalanced conditions were created: in English texts, the meaning probe was preceded by a close or paraphrased translation of a related Chinese-only idiom, or an unrelated phrase. The processing of the probe was influenced by figurative meanings of Chinese-only idioms for both groups of bilinguals, but not for monolingual controls, evidencing non-selective language processing beyond single words. There was no difference in the patterns of activation between close and paraphrased translations, suggesting that exact lexical overlap may not be necessary for cross-language activation of idioms. Different processing patterns were observed for immersion and non-immersion bilinguals.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"50 1","pages":"1-12"},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147351290","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-02-27DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101102
Keerthana Kapiley, Ramesh Kumar Mishra
In a socio-interactive context, bilinguals effortlessly plan their language appropriately. This study explores how high-literate and low-literate bilinguals plan their language when interacting with interlocutors with varied second language (L2) proficiency presented in an interactive context. Participants named objects in the presence of interlocutors with varying proficiency, which were presented in the background as visual-world stimuli. Results indicate that bilingual participants’ language choices and proportion of fixations were modulated by their level of literacy and the interlocutors’ language profiles. High-literate bilinguals chose to name in L2, and while doing so, they looked at high-L2-proficient interlocutors. Meanwhile, low-literate bilinguals looked at low-L2-proficient interlocutors and named in first language (L1) more often times than in L2. This indicates that bilinguals’ literacy level is not determined solely by their language choice but also by their sociolinguistic processing when interacting with interlocutors with varied L2 proficiencies.
{"title":"Interlocutors modulate language plan and production in high and low literate bilinguals: Evidence from eye movements","authors":"Keerthana Kapiley, Ramesh Kumar Mishra","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101102","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101102","url":null,"abstract":"In a socio-interactive context, bilinguals effortlessly plan their language appropriately. This study explores how high-literate and low-literate bilinguals plan their language when interacting with interlocutors with varied second language (L2) proficiency presented in an interactive context. Participants named objects in the presence of interlocutors with varying proficiency, which were presented in the background as visual-world stimuli. Results indicate that bilingual participants’ language choices and proportion of fixations were modulated by their level of literacy and the interlocutors’ language profiles. High-literate bilinguals chose to name in L2, and while doing so, they looked at high-L2-proficient interlocutors. Meanwhile, low-literate bilinguals looked at low-L2-proficient interlocutors and named in first language (L1) more often times than in L2. This indicates that bilinguals’ literacy level is not determined solely by their language choice but also by their sociolinguistic processing when interacting with interlocutors with varied L2 proficiencies.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"54 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147292598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-02-26DOI: 10.1017/s136672892610100x
Chloe Michelle Castle, Marta Velnić, Helene Ruud Jensberg
The roles of structural and lexical similarity in cross-linguistic influence in the L3 at higher proficiency levels are under researched. This study investigates the L3 Norwegian of such speakers. In alignment with the Linguistic Proximity Model (Westergaard et al., 2017), we assume that L3 structures are initially weak representations, becoming increasingly target-like with further input and use. We investigate what target this represents – the prescriptive rules of the language or movement towards L1-like use from community interaction and input. The properties investigated are the indefinite article and third person and reflexive possessives, by L1 Polish–L2 English and L1 English speakers. These categories provide fertile ground for investigation due to the (dis)similarities with the target language. The methodology consisted of an Acceptability Judgement Task. Results indicated possible structural-similarity based CLI and adherence to grammatical rules in intermediate-to-advanced proficiency L3ers – though this does not necessarily equal L1-like choices.
本文研究了结构相似性和词汇相似性在高水平三语跨语言影响中的作用。这项研究调查了这些人的L3挪威语。根据语言接近模型（Westergaard et al., 2017），我们假设L3结构最初是弱表征，随着进一步的输入和使用变得越来越像目标。我们调查了这代表了什么目标——语言的规定性规则或从社区互动和输入向l1样使用的运动。L1波兰语- l2英语和L1英语使用者调查了不定冠词、第三人称和反身所有格的性质。这些类别由于与目的语（非）相似而为研究提供了肥沃的土壤。该方法包括可接受性判断任务。结果表明，在中级到高级熟练程度的L3ers中，可能存在基于结构相似性的CLI和对语法规则的遵守，尽管这并不一定等于类似于l1的选择。
{"title":"CLI, proficiency and L1-like choices: L3 Norwegian learners in later stages of acquisition","authors":"Chloe Michelle Castle, Marta Velnić, Helene Ruud Jensberg","doi":"10.1017/s136672892610100x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s136672892610100x","url":null,"abstract":"The roles of structural and lexical similarity in cross-linguistic influence in the L3 at higher proficiency levels are under researched. This study investigates the L3 Norwegian of such speakers. In alignment with the Linguistic Proximity Model (Westergaard et al., 2017), we assume that L3 structures are initially weak representations, becoming increasingly target-like with further input and use. We investigate what target this represents – the prescriptive rules of the language or movement towards L1-like use from community interaction and input. The properties investigated are the indefinite article and third person and reflexive possessives, by L1 Polish–L2 English and L1 English speakers. These categories provide fertile ground for investigation due to the (dis)similarities with the target language. The methodology consisted of an Acceptability Judgement Task. Results indicated possible structural-similarity based CLI and adherence to grammatical rules in intermediate-to-advanced proficiency L3ers – though this does not necessarily equal L1-like choices.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"22 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-02-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147287112","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-02-25DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101072
Miren Arantzeta, Itziar San Martin, Itziar Laka
This study investigates the relationship between bilingualism, language use, aging, and interference control using the Color–Word Stroop test task. We examined 158 highly proficient Basque–Spanish bilinguals and 84 Spanish monolinguals (aged 30–80 years) to test whether interference control declines with age and whether bilingual adaptations depend on language use frequency. Language experience was assessed using an adapted Language and Social Background Questionnaire and Color–Word Stroop test interference scores were analyzed by regression models. Results showed that interference control declines with age. Group-level differences between bilinguals and monolinguals were not significant once education was included as a covariate, although a small marginal advantage for bilinguals emerged when using education-adjusted T-scores. Within the bilingual group, higher use of the minority language (Basque) in social contexts was associated with significantly better interference control. Social language use showed a stronger relationship with interference control than home use. These findings highlight that bilingual advantages are not uniform but depend on language use frequency and context, contributing to understanding how bilingual experience shapes cognitive control across the lifespan.
{"title":"Types of language use and interference control in aging bilinguals: Insights from the Word–Color Stroop Task","authors":"Miren Arantzeta, Itziar San Martin, Itziar Laka","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101072","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101072","url":null,"abstract":"This study investigates the relationship between bilingualism, language use, aging, and interference control using the Color–Word Stroop test task. We examined 158 highly proficient Basque–Spanish bilinguals and 84 Spanish monolinguals (aged 30–80 years) to test whether interference control declines with age and whether bilingual adaptations depend on language use frequency. Language experience was assessed using an adapted Language and Social Background Questionnaire and Color–Word Stroop test interference scores were analyzed by regression models. Results showed that interference control declines with age. Group-level differences between bilinguals and monolinguals were not significant once education was included as a covariate, although a small marginal advantage for bilinguals emerged when using education-adjusted T-scores. Within the bilingual group, higher use of the minority language (Basque) in social contexts was associated with significantly better interference control. Social language use showed a stronger relationship with interference control than home use. These findings highlight that bilingual advantages are not uniform but depend on language use frequency and context, contributing to understanding how bilingual experience shapes cognitive control across the lifespan.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"97 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147278875","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-02-13DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101023
My Viet Ha Nguyen, Evelyn Dianne Rodarte, Arturo E. Hernandez, Kelly A. Vaughn
Research teams studying bilingualism often focus on a specific population of bilinguals, which can limit the generalizability of their findings. This study explored how U.S. adolescents who speak a non-English language vary in their language experiences and cognition using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The sample included 6683 English monolinguals, 1138 heritage bilinguals, 592 dual language education (DLE) bilinguals and 1751 other bilinguals. SES varied across groups: sequential bilinguals (i.e., DLE and other bilinguals) had higher parental education and income than monolinguals, while heritage bilinguals had the lowest SES. Sequential bilinguals reported higher English proficiency and greater English use with family and friends than heritage bilinguals. Sequential bilinguals initially outperformed monolinguals on cognitive tasks, who in turn outperformed heritage bilinguals. However, these differences disappeared once SES was controlled. Findings highlight the importance of considering SES and language experiences when studying bilingualism’s cognitive effects and help explain inconsistencies in prior research.
{"title":"Beyond bilingual and monolingual: Cognitive, language and demographic profiles of adolescents in the United States","authors":"My Viet Ha Nguyen, Evelyn Dianne Rodarte, Arturo E. Hernandez, Kelly A. Vaughn","doi":"10.1017/s1366728926101023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728926101023","url":null,"abstract":"Research teams studying bilingualism often focus on a specific population of bilinguals, which can limit the generalizability of their findings. This study explored how U.S. adolescents who speak a non-English language vary in their language experiences and cognition using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The sample included 6683 English monolinguals, 1138 heritage bilinguals, 592 dual language education (DLE) bilinguals and 1751 other bilinguals. SES varied across groups: sequential bilinguals (i.e., DLE and other bilinguals) had higher parental education and income than monolinguals, while heritage bilinguals had the lowest SES. Sequential bilinguals reported higher English proficiency and greater English use with family and friends than heritage bilinguals. Sequential bilinguals initially outperformed monolinguals on cognitive tasks, who in turn outperformed heritage bilinguals. However, these differences disappeared once SES was controlled. Findings highlight the importance of considering SES and language experiences when studying bilingualism’s cognitive effects and help explain inconsistencies in prior research.","PeriodicalId":8758,"journal":{"name":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition","volume":"299 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146169583","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-02-13DOI: 10.1017/s1366728926101060
Joyce Lysanne van Zwet, Sharon Unsworth, Rob Schoonen, Eva Knopp
The influence of one of a bilingual’s languages on the other is known as cross-linguistic influence (CLI). In grammatical gender acquisition, CLI can occur during gender discovery, assignment and agreement. The present study investigates CLI in Dutch as a heritage language, a language with a non-transparent gender system, in two groups of bilingual children. One (i.e., Dutch-German bilingual children) is acquiring languages with similar gender systems and the other (i.e., Dutch-French bilingual children) is acquiring languages with more distant gender systems. We found CLI in gender discovery, gender assignment and gender agreement for the Dutch-German group but not for the Dutch-French group. Moreover, CLI simultaneously facilitated and hindered gender acquisition within the children, depending on the gender congruency of the nouns. This suggests co-activation of grammatical gender values in bilingual children. The findings help us better understand when cross-linguistic influence takes place and how it affects acquisition in bilingual children.
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