Conservation agriculture (CA) offers a climate-resilient pathway to enhance productivity, reduce input dependency, and sustain soil health. In Eastern India, rice-based systems dominate but are constrained by delayed transplanting, high water demand, and soil degradation under conventional puddled transplanting. Assessing the agronomic and economic responses of alternative establishment methods such as zero-tillage direct-seeded rice (ZT-DSR) and raised bed planting (RBP) is therefore critical to validate their suitability across diverse agro-climatic zones.
Objective
This study evaluated whether and how ZT-DSR for rice and RBP for winter maize improve system productivity, profitability, and resource-use efficiency across four agro-climatic zones (ACZs) of Bihar, thereby testing the hypothesis that CA-based diversification can deliver both economic and environmental gains in rice–winter maize (RWM) systems.
Methods
A four-year (2019–2023) multi-location field study was conducted across ACZ-I, II, IIIa, and IIIb of Bihar under uniform management protocols. Comparative analysis was performed on crop yields, water- and nutrient-use efficiencies, and profitability metrics to examine spatial variability and identify site-specific advantages.
Results
ZT-DSR improved rice productivity by 12–15 % in ACZ-IIIa, confirming the hypothesis that reduced soil disturbance and direct seeding can enhance yield. Conversely, maize under RBP performed best in ACZ-II (9.11 t/ha), nearly 80 % higher than in ACZ-IIIa, underscoring the zone’s favorable soil moisture and temperature regimes. Profitability patterns paralleled yield responses, with ACZ-II achieving the highest system net return ($1903/ha), ∼30 % greater than ACZ-IIIa. These spatial differences highlight the importance of aligning CA-practices with local agro-ecological conditions.
Conclusions
The combined use of ZT-DSR and RBP enhanced system productivity and profitability compared with conventional methods, supporting their wider integration into rice–maize systems. However, differential performance across zones indicates that benefits are context-dependent and should be validated through long-term and larger-scale trials.
Implications and Limitations
The study demonstrates that CA-practices can simultaneously boost yields, input-use efficiency, and farm income while promoting sustainability in subtropical regions. Nevertheless, factors such as site-specific soil texture, rainfall variability, and farmers’ management capacity may limit the generalizability of results. Broader adoption thus requires regionally adapted strategies, policy support, and farmer capacity-building to ensure lasting climate resilience and sustainable intensification.
{"title":"Conservation agriculture for sustainable rice-maize systems in Bihar, India","authors":"Vijay Singh Meena , Raj Kumar Jat , Shubham Durgude , S. Pazhanisamy , Tarun Kumar , Amar Kant Gautam , Suneel Kumar , Illathur R. Reddy , RK Sohane , Krishna Bahadur Chhetri , Ratnesh Kumar Jha , Abhay Kumar , Ujjwal Kumar , Anjani Kumar , RN Singh , Sunita Kumari Meena , Anup Das , Anil Kumar Jha , Dhananjay Pati Tripathi , Swati Sagar","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110275","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110275","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Conservation agriculture (CA) offers a climate-resilient pathway to enhance productivity, reduce input dependency, and sustain soil health. In Eastern India, rice-based systems dominate but are constrained by delayed transplanting, high water demand, and soil degradation under conventional puddled transplanting. Assessing the agronomic and economic responses of alternative establishment methods such as zero-tillage direct-seeded rice (ZT-DSR) and raised bed planting (RBP) is therefore critical to validate their suitability across diverse agro-climatic zones.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study evaluated whether and how ZT-DSR for rice and RBP for winter maize improve system productivity, profitability, and resource-use efficiency across four agro-climatic zones (ACZs) of Bihar, thereby testing the hypothesis that CA-based diversification can deliver both economic and environmental gains in rice–winter maize (RWM) systems.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A four-year (2019–2023) multi-location field study was conducted across ACZ-I, II, IIIa, and IIIb of Bihar under uniform management protocols. Comparative analysis was performed on crop yields, water- and nutrient-use efficiencies, and profitability metrics to examine spatial variability and identify site-specific advantages.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>ZT-DSR improved rice productivity by 12–15 % in ACZ-IIIa, confirming the hypothesis that reduced soil disturbance and direct seeding can enhance yield. Conversely, maize under RBP performed best in ACZ-II (9.11 t/ha), nearly 80 % higher than in ACZ-IIIa, underscoring the zone’s favorable soil moisture and temperature regimes. Profitability patterns paralleled yield responses, with ACZ-II achieving the highest system net return ($1903/ha), ∼30 % greater than ACZ-IIIa. These spatial differences highlight the importance of aligning CA-practices with local agro-ecological conditions.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The combined use of ZT-DSR and RBP enhanced system productivity and profitability compared with conventional methods, supporting their wider integration into rice–maize systems. However, differential performance across zones indicates that benefits are context-dependent and should be validated through long-term and larger-scale trials.</div></div><div><h3>Implications and Limitations</h3><div>The study demonstrates that CA-practices can simultaneously boost yields, input-use efficiency, and farm income while promoting sustainability in subtropical regions. Nevertheless, factors such as site-specific soil texture, rainfall variability, and farmers’ management capacity may limit the generalizability of results. Broader adoption thus requires regionally adapted strategies, policy support, and farmer capacity-building to ensure lasting climate resilience and sustainable intensification.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110275"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145657330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-26DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110261
Yanli Fan , Junjie Liu , Zhuxiu Liu , Haidong Gu , Xiaojing Hu , Zhenhua Yu , Yansheng Li , Jian Jin , Xiaobing Liu , Guanghua Wang
Context
Soybean monoculture aggravates soil acidification and increases incidence of soybean root rot, thus seriously restricting soybean production. Although soil amendments are widely adopted to mitigate soil-borne diseases and enhance crop yields, the mechanisms for improving soil health remain unelucidated.
Objective
This study employed microbial co-occurrence networks and ecological resistance indices to examine how soil amendments reshape microbial diversity, composition, and stability (bacteria, fungi and archaea), and to elucidate the mechanisms through which they alleviate continuous cropping obstacles in soybean.
Methods
Based on a three-year field experiment combined with an in vitro co-culture experiment, no soil amendment (CON), lime (LM), lime with straw (LMSS), lime with cow manure (LMCM), crude chitin (CC), and commercial Si-Ca-K-Mg (CSC) amendments were applied to treat severe continuous cropping obstacles in soybean fields. This study evaluated the potential relationships among soil microbial communities, soybean root rot incidence, and soybean yield in response to different soil amendments.
Results and conclusions
Soil amendments effectively decreased the soybean root rot incidence and increased soybean yields, with CC showing superior efficacy, achieving a 70 % reduction in disease incidence and over a 30 % increase in yield. Soil amendments noticeably enriched potentially beneficial species with disease-suppressive and growth-promoting functions, such as Pantoea BASV4, Bacillus BASV6, Humicola FASV38, Tausonia FASV5, and Mortierella FASV6. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that amendments enhanced microbial network stability and complexity. Notably, CC induced the most resistant microbial communities, whereas LMSS exhibited lower microbial resistance. Structural equation modeling and correlation analysis identified microbial resistance as a critical factor linking disease suppression and yield enhancement. In vitro co-culture experiments confirmed that the rhizosphere bacterial suspensions from amended soils inhibited Fusarium oxysporum hyphal elongation, correlating strongly with the abundance of beneficial bacteria. These results demonstrated that targeted amendment application alleviates continuous cropping barriers by recruiting beneficial microbiota and enhancing community resistance.
Implications
This study identifies the optimal amendment to ameliorate continuous cropping barriers, offering a theoretical framework and practical guidance for maintaining soil health and promoting crop production.
{"title":"Soil amendments alleviate continuous cropping obstacles in soybean by enhancing microbial resistance","authors":"Yanli Fan , Junjie Liu , Zhuxiu Liu , Haidong Gu , Xiaojing Hu , Zhenhua Yu , Yansheng Li , Jian Jin , Xiaobing Liu , Guanghua Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110261","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110261","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Soybean monoculture aggravates soil acidification and increases incidence of soybean root rot, thus seriously restricting soybean production. Although soil amendments are widely adopted to mitigate soil-borne diseases and enhance crop yields, the mechanisms for improving soil health remain unelucidated.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study employed microbial co-occurrence networks and ecological resistance indices to examine how soil amendments reshape microbial diversity, composition, and stability (bacteria, fungi and archaea), and to elucidate the mechanisms through which they alleviate continuous cropping obstacles in soybean.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Based on a three-year field experiment combined with an <em>in vitro</em> co-culture experiment, no soil amendment (CON), lime (LM), lime with straw (LMSS), lime with cow manure (LMCM), crude chitin (CC), and commercial Si-Ca-K-Mg (CSC) amendments were applied to treat severe continuous cropping obstacles in soybean fields. This study evaluated the potential relationships among soil microbial communities, soybean root rot incidence, and soybean yield in response to different soil amendments.</div></div><div><h3>Results and conclusions</h3><div>Soil amendments effectively decreased the soybean root rot incidence and increased soybean yields, with CC showing superior efficacy, achieving a 70 % reduction in disease incidence and over a 30 % increase in yield. Soil amendments noticeably enriched potentially beneficial species with disease-suppressive and growth-promoting functions, such as <em>Pantoea</em> BASV4, <em>Bacillus</em> BASV6, <em>Humicola</em> FASV38, <em>Tausonia</em> FASV5, and <em>Mortierella</em> FASV6. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that amendments enhanced microbial network stability and complexity. Notably, CC induced the most resistant microbial communities, whereas LMSS exhibited lower microbial resistance. Structural equation modeling and correlation analysis identified microbial resistance as a critical factor linking disease suppression and yield enhancement. <em>In vitro</em> co-culture experiments confirmed that the rhizosphere bacterial suspensions from amended soils inhibited <em>Fusarium oxysporum</em> hyphal elongation, correlating strongly with the abundance of beneficial bacteria. These results demonstrated that targeted amendment application alleviates continuous cropping barriers by recruiting beneficial microbiota and enhancing community resistance.</div></div><div><h3>Implications</h3><div>This study identifies the optimal amendment to ameliorate continuous cropping barriers, offering a theoretical framework and practical guidance for maintaining soil health and promoting crop production.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110261"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145609502","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-05DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110280
Chuan Zhong , Jing Ma , Xiaoru Liu , Shuping Shi , Mengyu Li , Yanjie Zhang , Fan Li , Tao Yang , Mingrong He , Xinglong Dai
Context:
Strong gluten wheat is economically vital for bread production but faces a persistent yield-quality tradeoff. While irrigation boosts yield, it often dilutes grain protein, compromising bread baking quality. Split nitrogen (N) topdressing can enhance protein, but its synergistic effects with irrigation regimes remain unclear.
Objective
This study aimed to (1) quantify the interactive effects of irrigation regimes and split N topdressing on grain yield and bread baking quality in strong gluten wheat, and (2) elucidate water-N synergy regulating protein composition and dough functionality.
Methods:
A two-year field experiment (2022–2024) employed a split-split plot design with two strong gluten wheat cultivars (JM5022: Jimai 5022, SN44: Shannong 44), three irrigation regimes (W1: 45 mm at jointing stage; W2: 45 mm at jointing stage + 45 mm at anthesis; W3: 45 mm at jointing stage + 45 mm at anthesis + 45 mm at grain filling stage), and two N topdressing patterns (SNT3:7: 30 % basal + 70 % jointing stage; SNT3:5:2: 30 % basal + 50 % jointing stage + 20 % anthesis). Measurements included yield and its components, plant N accumulation, protein and its components, dough rheology, protein secondary structure, and bread quality.
Results:
The W3SNT3:5:2 treatment maximized grain yield (17.29 % – 26.10 % higher than W1SNT3:7), attributed to increased spike number (8.27 % and 9.19 % in JM5022) and 1,000-kernel weight (7.26 % and 9.81 % in SN44). However, W2SNT3:5:2 optimally balanced yield and quality: it elevated grain protein by enhancing post-anthesis N remobilization, increased glutenin and HMW-GS content (by 7.47 % – 23.85 % and 28.34 % – 49.48 %, respectively, compare to W3SNT3:7), and stabilized protein secondary structure (higher β-sheet, α-helix and lower β-turn random coil). Consequently, it improved farinograph stability and extensograph resistance, with bread volume and scores increasing by 9.85 % – 10.04 % and 8.81 % – 9.63 %, respectively, compare to W3SNT3:7.
Conclusions
Synergistic optimizing irrigation regimes and split N topdressing, specifically 90 mm irrigation (45 mm at jointing + 45 mm at anthesis) with 30 % basal + 50 % jointing + 20 % anthesis N, simultaneously enhances yield and bread baking quality. This regimen mitigates irrigation-induced protein dilution by promoting plant post-anthesis N assimilation, optimizing glutenin composition, and stabilizing protein conformation, providing a practical strategy for high yield, premium quality strong gluten wheat production.
{"title":"Optimizing irrigation regimes and split nitrogen topdressing enhances grain yield and bread baking quality in strong gluten wheat","authors":"Chuan Zhong , Jing Ma , Xiaoru Liu , Shuping Shi , Mengyu Li , Yanjie Zhang , Fan Li , Tao Yang , Mingrong He , Xinglong Dai","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110280","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110280","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context:</h3><div>Strong gluten wheat is economically vital for bread production but faces a persistent yield-quality tradeoff. While irrigation boosts yield, it often dilutes grain protein, compromising bread baking quality. Split nitrogen (N) topdressing can enhance protein, but its synergistic effects with irrigation regimes remain unclear.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study aimed to (1) quantify the interactive effects of irrigation regimes and split N topdressing on grain yield and bread baking quality in strong gluten wheat, and (2) elucidate water-N synergy regulating protein composition and dough functionality.</div></div><div><h3>Methods:</h3><div>A two-year field experiment (2022–2024) employed a split-split plot design with two strong gluten wheat cultivars (JM5022: Jimai 5022, SN44: Shannong 44), three irrigation regimes (W1: 45 mm at jointing stage; W2: 45 mm at jointing stage + 45 mm at anthesis; W3: 45 mm at jointing stage + 45 mm at anthesis + 45 mm at grain filling stage), and two N topdressing patterns (SNT<sub>3:7</sub>: 30 % basal + 70 % jointing stage; SNT<sub>3:5:2</sub>: 30 % basal + 50 % jointing stage + 20 % anthesis). Measurements included yield and its components, plant N accumulation, protein and its components, dough rheology, protein secondary structure, and bread quality.</div></div><div><h3>Results:</h3><div>The W3SNT<sub>3:5:2</sub> treatment maximized grain yield (17.29 % – 26.10 % higher than W1SNT<sub>3:7</sub>), attributed to increased spike number (8.27 % and 9.19 % in JM5022) and 1,000-kernel weight (7.26 % and 9.81 % in SN44). However, W2SNT<sub>3:5:2</sub> optimally balanced yield and quality: it elevated grain protein by enhancing post-anthesis N remobilization, increased glutenin and HMW-GS content (by 7.47 % – 23.85 % and 28.34 % – 49.48 %, respectively, compare to W3SNT<sub>3:7</sub>), and stabilized protein secondary structure (higher β-sheet, α-helix and lower β-turn random coil). Consequently, it improved farinograph stability and extensograph resistance, with bread volume and scores increasing by 9.85 % – 10.04 % and 8.81 % – 9.63 %, respectively, compare to W3SNT<sub>3:7</sub>.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Synergistic optimizing irrigation regimes and split N topdressing, specifically 90 mm irrigation (45 mm at jointing + 45 mm at anthesis) with 30 % basal + 50 % jointing + 20 % anthesis N, simultaneously enhances yield and bread baking quality. This regimen mitigates irrigation-induced protein dilution by promoting plant post-anthesis N assimilation, optimizing glutenin composition, and stabilizing protein conformation, providing a practical strategy for high yield, premium quality strong gluten wheat production.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110280"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145682359","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-20DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110241
Yuan Wang , Li Zhang , Kai Ming , Lin Cao , Song Guo , Jiaming Lu , Ziwei Li , Weiling Wang , Can Zhao , Fengping Yang , Ke Xu , Hongcheng Zhang , Zhongyang Huo
Context
In the intensive ricewheat system of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, improper fertilization and irrigation practices lead to reactive nitrogen (Nr) loss and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and pose significant risks to ecosystems and human health.
Objective
While side-deep placement of controlled-release urea (S-CRU) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) have individually demonstrated effectiveness in increasing rice yield and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), the combined life-cycle impacts of these practices on economic benefits, environmental performance, and human health remain uncertain.
Methods
To address this gap, the combined effects of three fertilization strategies (conventional urea application in split doses, CU; broadcasting controlled-release urea, B-CRU; and S-CRU) and two irrigation regimes (conventional irrigation (CI) and AWD) on rice yield, NUE, economic returns, Nr and GHG emissions, nitrogen emissions (NE) and carbon footprints (CF), and their environmental and human health impacts were systematically evaluated.
Results
The results revealed that AWD+S-CRU increased rice yield, NUE, and agricultural net profit (ANP) by 7.89–18.48 %, 15.54–34.24 %, and 11.26–27.56 %, respectively. Compared with CI+CU, AWD+S-CRU also significantly reduced NH3 volatilization by 50.77–50.86 %, NH4+ -N leaching by 34.70–39.66 %, N2O emissions by 6.00–9.77 %, and CH4 emissions by 47.94–49.39 %, but it increased NO3--N leaching by 110.99–118.88 %. The NE and CF of AWD+S-CRU decreased by 42.99–43.31 % and 34.75–35.00 %, respectively, with NH₃ volatilization and CH₄ emissions as the dominant contributors. An environmental assessment revealed that AWD+S-CRU yielded the lowest total environmental impact potential (TEIP), total endpoint damage potential (TEDP), and damage to both human health and ecosystems, with human health damage exceeding ecosystem damage.
Implications
AWD+S-CRU achieves synergy among yield improvement, economic profitability, resource use efficiency, and environmental and health benefits, providing a sustainable and regionally adaptable strategy for achieving cleaner production in intensive rice systems.
{"title":"Side-deep placement of controlled-release urea combined with alternate wetting and drying irrigation achieves sustainable intensification of rice production in the rice–wheat system","authors":"Yuan Wang , Li Zhang , Kai Ming , Lin Cao , Song Guo , Jiaming Lu , Ziwei Li , Weiling Wang , Can Zhao , Fengping Yang , Ke Xu , Hongcheng Zhang , Zhongyang Huo","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110241","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110241","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>In the intensive rice<img>wheat system of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, improper fertilization and irrigation practices lead to reactive nitrogen (Nr) loss and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and pose significant risks to ecosystems and human health.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>While side-deep placement of controlled-release urea (S-CRU) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) have individually demonstrated effectiveness in increasing rice yield and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), the combined life-cycle impacts of these practices on economic benefits, environmental performance, and human health remain uncertain.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>To address this gap, the combined effects of three fertilization strategies (conventional urea application in split doses, CU; broadcasting controlled-release urea, B-CRU; and S-CRU) and two irrigation regimes (conventional irrigation (CI) and AWD) on rice yield, NUE, economic returns, Nr and GHG emissions, nitrogen emissions (NE) and carbon footprints (CF), and their environmental and human health impacts were systematically evaluated.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The results revealed that AWD+S-CRU increased rice yield, NUE, and agricultural net profit (ANP) by 7.89–18.48 %, 15.54–34.24 %, and 11.26–27.56 %, respectively. Compared with CI+CU, AWD+S-CRU also significantly reduced NH<sub>3</sub> volatilization by 50.77–50.86 %, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> -N leaching by 34.70–39.66 %, N<sub>2</sub>O emissions by 6.00–9.77 %, and CH<sub>4</sub> emissions by 47.94–49.39 %, but it increased NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>-N leaching by 110.99–118.88 %. The NE and CF of AWD+S-CRU decreased by 42.99–43.31 % and 34.75–35.00 %, respectively, with NH₃ volatilization and CH₄ emissions as the dominant contributors. An environmental assessment revealed that AWD+S-CRU yielded the lowest total environmental impact potential (TEIP), total endpoint damage potential (TEDP), and damage to both human health and ecosystems, with human health damage exceeding ecosystem damage.</div></div><div><h3>Implications</h3><div>AWD+S-CRU achieves synergy among yield improvement, economic profitability, resource use efficiency, and environmental and health benefits, providing a sustainable and regionally adaptable strategy for achieving cleaner production in intensive rice systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110241"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145555360","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-10DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110282
Shiming Duan , Xiangyu Li , Jian Kang , Xiuwei Liu , Shichao Chen , Bin Du , Taisheng Du
Context or problem
The maize-soybean intercropping system, as a typical resource-intensive agricultural model, exhibits constrained productivity due to resource competition caused by interspecific root niche overlap.
Objective or research question
We proposes a regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategy that accounts for the spatiotemporal water demands of intercropped crops, aiming to improve interspecific water complementarity and decrease rhizosphere competition.
Methods
Four irrigation treatments were implemented: MSW1 (conventional irrigation, full irrigation for both crops), MSW2 (full maize with RDI soybean), MSW3 (RDI maize with full soybean), and MSW4 (RDI for both crops).
Results
Two-year field trials demonstrated that compared to MSW1 treatment, the MSW2 treatment stimulated maize deep root proliferation (+ 11–65 % in root tissue density), enabling maize to better utilize subsoil water originally accessed by soybean (+ 182–284 %). This strategy reduced irrigation volume by 9.4 %-17 % without compromising yield, while achieving a 29 % reduction in evapotranspiration and an 12 % improvement in water equivalence ratio (WER). Water use efficiency (WUE) and economic water use efficiency (EWUE) increased by 28–29 %, respectively. Grain yield under MSW2 surpassed other deficit treatments (MSW3 and MSW4) by 46 %-49 %, with 30 %-34 % of this yield advantage attributed to root spatial niche superposition effects and 70 %-167 % enhancement in interspecific hydraulic compensation effects.
Conclusions
Our results demonstrated that RDI can serve as an effective management tool to intentionally reshape root system interactions in maize–soybean intercropping, shifting belowground relationships from strong competition toward more complementary water use. Prioritizing full irrigation for maize while applying moderate and growth stage–specific deficits to soybean emerges can conserve water and enhances both WUE and economic returns without compromising yield.
Implications or significance
The proposed “full maize with RDI soybean” strategy can be readily implemented in existing drip irrigated intercropping systems and provides a concrete pathway for sustainable intensification of maize–soybean production in water limited agroecosystems. Future work combining this framework with high throughput root and canopy phenotyping, sensor based smart drip irrigation control and multi-site evaluations will be important to optimize and scale this approach under diverse climatic and management conditions.
{"title":"The proliferation of maize deep root systems is beneficial for enhancing the water use efficiency of the maize-soybean intercropping system","authors":"Shiming Duan , Xiangyu Li , Jian Kang , Xiuwei Liu , Shichao Chen , Bin Du , Taisheng Du","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110282","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110282","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context or problem</h3><div>The maize-soybean intercropping system, as a typical resource-intensive agricultural model, exhibits constrained productivity due to resource competition caused by interspecific root niche overlap.</div></div><div><h3>Objective or research question</h3><div>We proposes a regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategy that accounts for the spatiotemporal water demands of intercropped crops, aiming to improve interspecific water complementarity and decrease rhizosphere competition.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Four irrigation treatments were implemented: MSW1 (conventional irrigation, full irrigation for both crops), MSW2 (full maize with RDI soybean), MSW3 (RDI maize with full soybean), and MSW4 (RDI for both crops).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Two-year field trials demonstrated that compared to MSW1 treatment, the MSW2 treatment stimulated maize deep root proliferation (+ 11–65 % in root tissue density), enabling maize to better utilize subsoil water originally accessed by soybean (+ 182–284 %). This strategy reduced irrigation volume by 9.4 %-17 % without compromising yield, while achieving a 29 % reduction in evapotranspiration and an 12 % improvement in water equivalence ratio (WER). Water use efficiency (WUE) and economic water use efficiency (EWUE) increased by 28–29 %, respectively. Grain yield under MSW2 surpassed other deficit treatments (MSW3 and MSW4) by 46 %-49 %, with 30 %-34 % of this yield advantage attributed to root spatial niche superposition effects and 70 %-167 % enhancement in interspecific hydraulic compensation effects.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Our results demonstrated that RDI can serve as an effective management tool to intentionally reshape root system interactions in maize–soybean intercropping, shifting belowground relationships from strong competition toward more complementary water use. Prioritizing full irrigation for maize while applying moderate and growth stage–specific deficits to soybean emerges can conserve water and enhances both WUE and economic returns without compromising yield.</div></div><div><h3>Implications or significance</h3><div>The proposed “full maize with RDI soybean” strategy can be readily implemented in existing drip irrigated intercropping systems and provides a concrete pathway for sustainable intensification of maize–soybean production in water limited agroecosystems. Future work combining this framework with high throughput root and canopy phenotyping, sensor based smart drip irrigation control and multi-site evaluations will be important to optimize and scale this approach under diverse climatic and management conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110282"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731123","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-25DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110262
Zhaoyang Li , Yukang Wang , Nan Shi , Yixuan Yuan , Lianjun Wei , Weixing Shan , Medelbek Meruyert , Ansabayeva Assiya , Zhikuan Jia , Kadambot H.M. Siddique , Ruixia Ding , Peng Wu , Shimeng Fan , Jiangang Liu , Yuling Meng , Peng Zhang
<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Nitrogen management is pivotal for attaining sustainable agricultural development in the future. Among the array of mitigation strategies, deep fertilization emerges as a promising approach to address the multifaceted challenges associated with agricultural productivity, environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and social demands.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study seeks to comprehensively assess the effects of deep nitrogen fertilization on potato productivity, environmental footprint, ecological and social costs and benefits. The findings are Intended to provide furnish an actionable guidance for advancing sustainable potato production in Northwest China.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Field experiments were conducted over three consecutive years (2021–2023) at four representative sites spanning two typical climatic zones in Northwest China: the arid region (Ganzhou and Yongchang—Site 1 and Site 2) and the semi-arid region (Anding and Jingning—Site 3 and Site 4). All trials were integrated into local mainstream potato cultivation practices, with drip irrigation applied at Sites 1, 2, and 3, whereas Site 4 was cultivated under rain-fed cultivations. Four nitrogen fertilization depths were investigated:</div><div>D5 (5 cm), D15 (15 cm), D25 (25 cm), and D35 (35 cm), to assess the effects of nitrogen placement depth on multiple performance indicators.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In arid region, the lowest nitrogen footprint (N<sub>F</sub>) and carbon footprint (C<sub>F</sub>), as well as the highest yield, N-derived potato tuber yield (Y<sub>N</sub>), N-Partial factor productivity (PFP<sub>N</sub>), private profitability (B<sub>P</sub>), ecological benefits (B<sub>E</sub>) and social benefits (B<sub>S</sub>) were observed when the fertilization depth was 15 cm, while the best performance was observed at 25 cm in semi-arid region. In addition, when the fertilization depth is 35 cm, the ecological cost (E<sub>cost</sub>) and social cost (S<sub>cost</sub>) in arid and semi-arid regions are the lowest. Compared with the conventional fertilization depth (D5) in the northwest region, the N<sub>F</sub>, C<sub>F</sub>, E<sub>cost</sub> and S<sub>cost</sub> were significantly reduced by 14.8–34.2 %, 7.1–20.6 %, 15.0–19.7 % and 20.1–25.1 % when the optimal treatment depth was adjusted, and the yield, Y<sub>N</sub>, PFP<sub>N</sub>, B<sub>P</sub>, B<sub>E</sub> and B<sub>S</sub> were significantly increased by 4.7–22.2 %, 10.2–42.8 %, 4.7–22.2 %, 10.4–86.7 %, 10.9–88.4 % and 11.8–92.5 %. The regression analysis revealed a clear spatial pattern: the optimal fertilization depth for maximizing productivity, minimizing environmental footprint, optimizing cost and benefit was generally shallower in arid areas compared to the semi-arid area, and shallower in the drip irrigation area than in the rain-fed area (with the exception of cost).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Based on the comprehe
氮管理是实现未来农业可持续发展的关键。在一系列缓解战略中，深度施肥是解决与农业生产力、环境可持续性、经济效率和社会需求有关的多方面挑战的一种有希望的方法。目的综合评价深施氮肥对马铃薯产量、环境足迹、生态和社会成本效益的影响。研究结果旨在为促进西北地区马铃薯可持续生产提供可操作的指导。方法连续3年（2021-2023年）在中国西北2个典型气候带：干旱区（赣州和永昌）和半干旱区（安定和静宁）的4个代表性站点进行田间试验。所有试验均与当地主流马铃薯栽培方法相结合，在试验点1、2和3采用滴灌，而在试验点4采用雨养栽培。研究了4个施氮深度：D5（5 cm）、D15（15 cm）、D25（25 cm）和D35(35 cm)，以评估施氮深度对多个性能指标的影响。结果在干旱区，施肥深度为15 cm时，氮足迹（NF）和碳足迹（CF）最低，产量、氮衍生马铃薯块茎产量（YN）、氮偏要素生产率（PFPN）、私人盈利能力（BP）、生态效益（BE）和社会效益（BS）最高，半干旱区施肥深度为25 cm时表现最佳。此外，当施肥深度为35 cm时，干旱半干旱区的生态成本（Ecost）和社会成本（Scost）最低。相比与传统施肥深度(D5)在西北地区,NF, CF, Ecost和Scost明显减少了14.8 - -34.2 %,7.1 - -20.6 %,15.0 - -19.7 % -25.1和20.1 %的最佳治疗深度调整的时候,和收益率,YN, PFPN,英国石油(BP), BS明显增加了4.7 - -22.2 %, % 10.2 - -42.8,4.7 - -22.2 %, % 10.4 - -86.7,10.9 - -88.4 % -92.5和11.8 %。回归分析结果表明：旱区的最佳施肥深度总体上较半干旱区浅，而滴灌区则较雨水区浅（除成本外）。结论在综合评价生产力、环境影响和经济社会效益的基础上，建议将施肥深度调整为：Site 1 18.0 cm, Site 2 13.3 cm, Site 3 20.2 cm, Site 4 22.9 cm。这些调整预计将提高马铃薯产量和整体效益。
{"title":"Adjusting fertilization depth for sustainable potato production in arid and semi-arid regions","authors":"Zhaoyang Li , Yukang Wang , Nan Shi , Yixuan Yuan , Lianjun Wei , Weixing Shan , Medelbek Meruyert , Ansabayeva Assiya , Zhikuan Jia , Kadambot H.M. Siddique , Ruixia Ding , Peng Wu , Shimeng Fan , Jiangang Liu , Yuling Meng , Peng Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110262","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110262","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Nitrogen management is pivotal for attaining sustainable agricultural development in the future. Among the array of mitigation strategies, deep fertilization emerges as a promising approach to address the multifaceted challenges associated with agricultural productivity, environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and social demands.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study seeks to comprehensively assess the effects of deep nitrogen fertilization on potato productivity, environmental footprint, ecological and social costs and benefits. The findings are Intended to provide furnish an actionable guidance for advancing sustainable potato production in Northwest China.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Field experiments were conducted over three consecutive years (2021–2023) at four representative sites spanning two typical climatic zones in Northwest China: the arid region (Ganzhou and Yongchang—Site 1 and Site 2) and the semi-arid region (Anding and Jingning—Site 3 and Site 4). All trials were integrated into local mainstream potato cultivation practices, with drip irrigation applied at Sites 1, 2, and 3, whereas Site 4 was cultivated under rain-fed cultivations. Four nitrogen fertilization depths were investigated:</div><div>D5 (5 cm), D15 (15 cm), D25 (25 cm), and D35 (35 cm), to assess the effects of nitrogen placement depth on multiple performance indicators.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In arid region, the lowest nitrogen footprint (N<sub>F</sub>) and carbon footprint (C<sub>F</sub>), as well as the highest yield, N-derived potato tuber yield (Y<sub>N</sub>), N-Partial factor productivity (PFP<sub>N</sub>), private profitability (B<sub>P</sub>), ecological benefits (B<sub>E</sub>) and social benefits (B<sub>S</sub>) were observed when the fertilization depth was 15 cm, while the best performance was observed at 25 cm in semi-arid region. In addition, when the fertilization depth is 35 cm, the ecological cost (E<sub>cost</sub>) and social cost (S<sub>cost</sub>) in arid and semi-arid regions are the lowest. Compared with the conventional fertilization depth (D5) in the northwest region, the N<sub>F</sub>, C<sub>F</sub>, E<sub>cost</sub> and S<sub>cost</sub> were significantly reduced by 14.8–34.2 %, 7.1–20.6 %, 15.0–19.7 % and 20.1–25.1 % when the optimal treatment depth was adjusted, and the yield, Y<sub>N</sub>, PFP<sub>N</sub>, B<sub>P</sub>, B<sub>E</sub> and B<sub>S</sub> were significantly increased by 4.7–22.2 %, 10.2–42.8 %, 4.7–22.2 %, 10.4–86.7 %, 10.9–88.4 % and 11.8–92.5 %. The regression analysis revealed a clear spatial pattern: the optimal fertilization depth for maximizing productivity, minimizing environmental footprint, optimizing cost and benefit was generally shallower in arid areas compared to the semi-arid area, and shallower in the drip irrigation area than in the rain-fed area (with the exception of cost).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Based on the comprehe","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110262"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145598576","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Deep subsoil fertilization with organic amendments and bio-stimulants remains poorly explored, particularly below 50 cm depth. Conventional fertilizer placement typically targets the plow layer, overlooking subsoil fertility constraints that limit root growth and nutrient use efficiency.
Objective
This study examined the agronomic and soil responses to deep (75 cm) placement of organic–bio-stimulant combinations in fodder maize cropping under temperate conditions.
Methods
A two-year field trial (2023–2024) was conducted in northern Belgium using a randomized complete block design with 11 treatments and three replicates. Treatments included humic acid (HA) and liquid digestate (LD), applied alone or in combination with microbial inoculants, Trichoderma spp. (TRC), plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), and mycorrhizal fungi (MF). Maize yield, leaf chlorophyll content, and subsoil (30–60 cm) nutrients were measured to assess treatment effects on crop performance and soil fertility.
Results
Deep application of LD + TRC and HA + MF significantly increased maize fodder yield by up to 18 %, relative to the control and sustained higher chlorophyll levels at late growth stages. Subsoil analyses showed that TRC and MF increased total organic carbon and available potassium, while PGPB improved available phosphorus. Enhanced root activity and subsoil nutrient retention contributed to improved fertilizer-use efficiency and reduced nutrient depletion.
Conclusion
Subsoil placement of organic bio-stimulant combinations enhances maize productivity and subsoil fertility by improving nutrient availability and carbon storage below the plow layer. The findings highlight the potential of deep organic fertilization as a promising strategy for improving resource efficiency and long-term soil health in subsoil-constrained cropping systems.
{"title":"Impacts of carbon-rich amendments and bio-stimulants in subsoil on fodder maize productivity","authors":"Dewen Qiao , Ajit Borundia , Cristina Cruz , Abdul Mounem Mouazen","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110239","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110239","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Deep subsoil fertilization with organic amendments and bio-stimulants remains poorly explored, particularly below 50 cm depth. Conventional fertilizer placement typically targets the plow layer, overlooking subsoil fertility constraints that limit root growth and nutrient use efficiency.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study examined the agronomic and soil responses to deep (75 cm) placement of organic–bio-stimulant combinations in fodder maize cropping under temperate conditions.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A two-year field trial (2023–2024) was conducted in northern Belgium using a randomized complete block design with 11 treatments and three replicates. Treatments included humic acid (HA) and liquid digestate (LD), applied alone or in combination with microbial inoculants, <em>Trichoderma</em> spp. (TRC), plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), and mycorrhizal fungi (MF). Maize yield, leaf chlorophyll content, and subsoil (30–60 cm) nutrients were measured to assess treatment effects on crop performance and soil fertility.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Deep application of LD + TRC and HA + MF significantly increased maize fodder yield by up to 18 %, relative to the control and sustained higher chlorophyll levels at late growth stages. Subsoil analyses showed that TRC and MF increased total organic carbon and available potassium, while PGPB improved available phosphorus. Enhanced root activity and subsoil nutrient retention contributed to improved fertilizer-use efficiency and reduced nutrient depletion.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Subsoil placement of organic bio-stimulant combinations enhances maize productivity and subsoil fertility by improving nutrient availability and carbon storage below the plow layer. The findings highlight the potential of deep organic fertilization as a promising strategy for improving resource efficiency and long-term soil health in subsoil-constrained cropping systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110239"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145567436","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-29DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110269
Zhengyuan Liang , Bowen Ma , Rui-Peng Yu, Yuewen Huo, Shingirai Mudare, Feiyu Ying, Long Li, Fusuo Zhang, Wen-Feng Cong
Context
Crop specialization and intensification over recent decades have led to sustainability challenges in the productive, socio-economic and eco-environmental terms. In response, many agricultural regions are seeking more species-diverse and sustainable cropping systems. However, a systematic, comprehensive, and efficient approach to exploring and evaluating such systems remains lacking.
Objectives
We aim to present a general framework for designing and assessing sustainable and diversified cropping systems at the field scale, tailored to region-specific sustainability objectives and farming contexts.
Methods
We reviewed widely-used sustainability objectives and analyzed key factors affecting cropping system performance. Additionally, we evaluated existing design approaches—knowledge-driven design, model-aided exploration, and participatory innovation—to identify their strengths and limitations, and proposed an integrated framework to bridge gaps in current methodologies.
Results
The framework is structured into five iterative steps: (1) Identifying sustainability objectives and farming contexts; (2) Sustainability assessment of existing cropping systems using farmer surveys; (3) Collecting practical and scientific knowledge pertinent to candidate crops and local conditions; (4) Model-aided exploration and assessment of diversified cropping system options; and (5) Participatory decision-making through stakeholder negotiations and on-farm trials. This framework addresses the limitations of existing approaches by integrating ecological expertise, advanced modeling techniques, and stakeholder-driven adaptation to regional conditions. We illustrate this framework through a case study in China, where three diversified cropping systems were identified by stakeholders to improve system productivity and economic returns while reducing resource use.
Implications
With appropriate adaptation, this framework can support context-specific, stakeholder-driven cropping system design in diverse agroecological and socio-economic settings.
{"title":"A general framework for designing and assessing sustainable and diversified cropping systems: Bridging knowledge-driven, model-aided, and participatory approaches","authors":"Zhengyuan Liang , Bowen Ma , Rui-Peng Yu, Yuewen Huo, Shingirai Mudare, Feiyu Ying, Long Li, Fusuo Zhang, Wen-Feng Cong","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110269","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110269","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Crop specialization and intensification over recent decades have led to sustainability challenges in the productive, socio-economic and eco-environmental terms. In response, many agricultural regions are seeking more species-diverse and sustainable cropping systems. However, a systematic, comprehensive, and efficient approach to exploring and evaluating such systems remains lacking.</div></div><div><h3>Objectives</h3><div>We aim to present a general framework for designing and assessing sustainable and diversified cropping systems at the field scale, tailored to region-specific sustainability objectives and farming contexts.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We reviewed widely-used sustainability objectives and analyzed key factors affecting cropping system performance. Additionally, we evaluated existing design approaches—knowledge-driven design, model-aided exploration, and participatory innovation—to identify their strengths and limitations, and proposed an integrated framework to bridge gaps in current methodologies.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The framework is structured into five iterative steps: (1) Identifying sustainability objectives and farming contexts; (2) Sustainability assessment of existing cropping systems using farmer surveys; (3) Collecting practical and scientific knowledge pertinent to candidate crops and local conditions; (4) Model-aided exploration and assessment of diversified cropping system options; and (5) Participatory decision-making through stakeholder negotiations and on-farm trials. This framework addresses the limitations of existing approaches by integrating ecological expertise, advanced modeling techniques, and stakeholder-driven adaptation to regional conditions. We illustrate this framework through a case study in China, where three diversified cropping systems were identified by stakeholders to improve system productivity and economic returns while reducing resource use.</div></div><div><h3>Implications</h3><div>With appropriate adaptation, this framework can support context-specific, stakeholder-driven cropping system design in diverse agroecological and socio-economic settings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110269"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145614029","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-28DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110264
Roxana Savin , Román A. Serrago , Daniel J. Miralles , Santiago Tamagno , Daniel F. Calderini , Victor O. Sadras , Gustavo A. Slafer
Understanding the physiology of crop yield is important to inform both agronomy and breeding. In grain crops, there is consensus in the interpretation of data, further supported by theory, to conclude that grain number is source-limited; this accounts for the strong correlation of yield and grain number, and the high phenotypic plasticity of grain number due to source limitation. However, whether grain weight during the effective grain filling period is source- or sink-limited remains debatable. This lack of consensus is commonly interpreted as variation associated with the interaction between genotype and environment. In this opinion paper, we argue that part of the inconsistency in the literature may stem from overinterpretation of experimental results, extreme treatments (e.g., 50–90 % shading), and the assumptions of linearity to conclude that grain weight is source-limited during the effective grain filling. A central flaw is the unjustified extrapolation of conclusions from manipulated plants to the unmanipulated real crop. We review the outcomes of both direct and indirect manipulations of source–sink ratios during the effective grain filling across grain crops with a focus on methods and interpretation of results. Indirect approaches that increase or reduce grain number to measure grain weight compensation (e.g., shading or thinning the plots during the critical period of grain number determination) are ill-suited because they influence potential grain size and grain size hierarchies, confounding interpretation of the grain weight–grain number relationship. Direct manipulations of source–sink ratio that do not alter grain weight (e.g., shading or de-graining plants during the effective grain filling), provide strong evidence that grain growth in the intact control is sink-limited. Conversely, when grain weight changes significantly in response to severe manipulation, the only valid conclusion is that the manipulated plants were source-limited; it is not justified to reach conclusions on the intact control crop. These considerations call for a more cautious interpretation of experimental data where direct manipulation of the source-sink ratio leads to a significant change in grain weight, and suggest a re-evaluation of experimental and analytical methods are needed to conclude on the nature of grain weight limitation.
{"title":"Extreme treatments and data overinterpretation could lead to the unjustified conclusion that crop yield is source-limited during the effective grain filling","authors":"Roxana Savin , Román A. Serrago , Daniel J. Miralles , Santiago Tamagno , Daniel F. Calderini , Victor O. Sadras , Gustavo A. Slafer","doi":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110264","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110264","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding the physiology of crop yield is important to inform both agronomy and breeding. In grain crops, there is consensus in the interpretation of data, further supported by theory, to conclude that grain number is source-limited; this accounts for the strong correlation of yield and grain number, and the high phenotypic plasticity of grain number due to source limitation. However, whether grain weight during the effective grain filling period is source- or sink-limited remains debatable. This lack of consensus is commonly interpreted as variation associated with the interaction between genotype and environment. In this opinion paper, we argue that part of the inconsistency in the literature may stem from overinterpretation of experimental results, extreme treatments (e.g., 50–90 % shading), and the assumptions of linearity to conclude that grain weight is source-limited during the effective grain filling. A central flaw is the unjustified extrapolation of conclusions from manipulated plants to the unmanipulated real crop. We review the outcomes of both direct and indirect manipulations of source–sink ratios during the effective grain filling across grain crops with a focus on methods and interpretation of results. Indirect approaches that increase or reduce grain number to measure grain weight compensation (e.g., shading or thinning the plots during the critical period of grain number determination) are ill-suited because they influence potential grain size and grain size hierarchies, confounding interpretation of the grain weight–grain number relationship. Direct manipulations of source–sink ratio that do not alter grain weight (e.g., shading or de-graining plants during the effective grain filling), provide strong evidence that grain growth in the intact control is sink-limited. Conversely, when grain weight changes significantly in response to severe manipulation, the only valid conclusion is that the <em>manipulated plants</em> were source-limited; it is not justified to reach conclusions on the intact control crop. These considerations call for a more cautious interpretation of experimental data where direct manipulation of the source-sink ratio leads to a significant change in grain weight, and suggest a re-evaluation of experimental and analytical methods are needed to conclude on the nature of grain weight limitation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":12143,"journal":{"name":"Field Crops Research","volume":"337 ","pages":"Article 110264"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145614033","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-11-28DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110263
Chenzhen Xia , Chunying Ren , Yeqiao Wang , Zongming Wang , Mingming Jia , Yanbiao Xi , Pan Liu , Huixin Ren , Qinglin Hou , Xing Ruan
<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Enhancing maize yield estimation accuracy under extreme precipitation and understanding the spatial heterogeneity of crop responses are critical to reduce future projection uncertainty and improve the credibility of climate adaptation strategies. This urgency is heightened by spatially divergent summer rainfall patterns from global warming and La Niña events, posing severe threats to maize production and food security.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study aims to determine the optimal combination of variables and time windows for accurately assessing corn yield under extreme precipitation, and to quantify the spatial heterogeneity response mechanisms caused by differences in soil and topography.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>This study integrated Sentinel-2 data and multiple environmental factors including vegetation, soil, climate, and topography, with variable extraction strategies across different time windows, such as full growing season, monthly, and specific growth stage, to improve the accuracy of maize yield estimation in an extreme precipitation year. Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression (SMLR) and two machine learning algorithms of Random Forest (RF) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) were employed to identify the optimal variable combination and assess the robustness of the selected time windows. The SHapley Additive Explanation (SHAP) model was utilized to identify the key factors affecting yield spatial heterogeneity and quantify its potential mechanisms of action.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The XGBoost model at the filling stage achieved high accuracy (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.88, nRMSE = 10.78 %). Results highlight NIR (24.51 %) and Red-Edge 3 (Re3, 25.57 %) spectral bands, alongside the Chlorophyll Vegetation Index (GCVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), as critical spectral features. The results of the XGBoost-SHAP model indicate that soil sediment content and topographical features are key drivers contributing to yield losses during heavy/prolonged precipitation events. They exhibit a non-linear threshold relationship: soil with low sand content (∼12.85 %) and a low-lying topography can exacerbate yield loss.However, when the sand content is within a specific range (22–30 %), the impact on yield transitions from a reduction to a positive influence.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>In an extreme precipitation year, the developed XGBoost-SHAP framework significantly enhances maize yield estimation accuracy as early as 6–8 weeks before harvest. And reveals a "soil-topography buffering effect" driving maize yield spatial variability under extreme precipitation, quantifying critical nonlinear thresholds in soil responses.</div></div><div><h3>Significance</h3><div>This approach enhances yield prediction in climate-vulnerable years, and the identified soil-topography interactions provide actionable insights for adapting tillage practices and soil management to bolster far
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