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Energy-efficient computing at cryogenic temperatures 低温条件下的高能效计算

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-31 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01278-x

Cezar Zota, Alberto Ferraris, Eunjung Cha, Mridula Prathapan, Peter Mueller, Effendi Leobandung

Increasing demand for data-intense computing applications—such as artificial intelligence, large language models and high-performance computing—has created a need for computing infrastructure that can handle large workloads with high energy efficiency. Advances in silicon-based complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor technology have led to more efficient field-effect transistors, but these devices are fundamentally limited by thermionic injection. As a result, on–off switching efficiency cannot be improved beyond 60 mV of drive voltage per decade of current. Operation of electronics at cryogenic temperatures, such as 77 K, can overcome this limit and provide performance improvements. Here we explore the development of computing at cryogenic temperatures. We examine the changes in electrical transistor and material properties observed at low temperatures, and highlight the need for further studies on cryogenic noise, reliability, variability and thermal management. We also consider the potential performance improvements at the device and circuit level of such technology. This Perspective examines the performance advantages and challenges of operating complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices at cryogenic temperatures.

对数据密集型计算应用（如人工智能、大型语言模型和高性能计算）的需求日益增长，因此需要能够以高能效处理大型工作负载的计算基础设施。硅基互补金属氧化物半导体技术的进步带来了更高效的场效应晶体管，但这些器件从根本上受到热离子注入的限制。因此，通断开关效率无法提高到每十进制电流 60 mV 驱动电压以上。在 77 K 等低温条件下运行电子器件可以克服这一限制，并提高性能。在此，我们将探讨低温计算的发展。我们研究了在低温条件下观察到的电子晶体管和材料特性的变化，并强调了进一步研究低温噪声、可靠性、可变性和热管理的必要性。我们还考虑了此类技术在器件和电路层面的潜在性能改进。

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引用次数: 0

A wearable echomyography system based on a single transducer 基于单个传感器的可穿戴超声造影系统

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-31 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01271-4

Xiaoxiang Gao, Xiangjun Chen, Muyang Lin, Wentong Yue, Hongjie Hu, Siyu Qin, Fangao Zhang, Zhiyuan Lou, Lu Yin, Hao Huang, Sai Zhou, Yizhou Bian, Xinyi Yang, Yangzhi Zhu, Jing Mu, Xinyu Wang, Geonho Park, Chengchangfeng Lu, Ruotao Wang, Ray S. Wu, Joseph Wang, Jinghong Li, Sheng Xu

Wearable electromyography devices can detect muscular activity for health monitoring and body motion tracking, but this approach is limited by weak and stochastic signals with a low spatial resolution. Alternatively, echomyography can detect muscle movement using ultrasound waves, but typically relies on complex transducer arrays, which are bulky, have high power consumption and can limit user mobility. Here we report a fully integrated wearable echomyography system that consists of a customized single transducer, a wireless circuit for data processing and an on-board battery for power. The system can be attached to the skin and provides accurate long-term wireless monitoring of muscles. To illustrate its capabilities, we use this system to detect the activity of the diaphragm, which allows the recognition of different breathing modes. We also develop a deep learning algorithm to correlate the single-transducer radio-frequency data from forearm muscles with hand gestures to accurately and continuously track 13 hand joints with a mean error of only 7.9°. An echomyography system based on a single transducer can be integrated into a wearable patch and used to monitor breathing patterns and hand gestures.

可穿戴肌电图设备可以检测肌肉活动，用于健康监测和身体运动追踪，但这种方法受到信号微弱、随机、空间分辨率低的限制。另外，超声波肌电图可利用超声波检测肌肉运动，但通常依赖于复杂的传感器阵列，这些阵列体积大、功耗高，而且会限制用户的移动性。在此，我们报告了一种完全集成的可穿戴式超声肌成像系统，该系统由一个定制的单传感器、一个用于数据处理的无线电路和一个板载电源电池组成。该系统可以贴在皮肤上，对肌肉进行长期精确的无线监测。为了说明其功能，我们使用该系统检测横膈膜的活动，从而识别不同的呼吸模式。我们还开发了一种深度学习算法，将前臂肌肉的单传感器射频数据与手势相关联，从而准确、连续地跟踪 13 个手部关节，平均误差仅为 7.9°。

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引用次数: 0

Fractional quantum Hall phases in high-mobility n-type molybdenum disulfide transistors 高迁移率 n 型二硫化钼晶体管中的分数量子霍尔相

IF 34.3 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-30 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01274-1

Siwen Zhao, Jinqiang Huang, Valentin Crépel, Zhiren Xiong, Xingguang Wu, Tongyao Zhang, Hanwen Wang, Xiangyan Han, Zhengyu Li, Chuanying Xi, Senyang Pan, Zhaosheng Wang, Guangli Kuang, Jun Luo, Qinxin Shen, Jie Yang, Rui Zhou, Kenji Watanabe, Takashi Taniguchi, Benjamin Sacépé, Jing Zhang, Ning Wang, Jianming Lu, Nicolas Regnault, Zheng Vitto Han

Transistors based on semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides can, in theory, offer high carrier mobilities, strong spin–orbit coupling and inherently strong electronic interactions at the quantum ground states. This makes them well suited for use in nanoelectronics at low temperatures. However, creating robust ohmic contacts to transition metal dichalcogenide layers at cryogenic temperatures is difficult. As a result, it is not possible to reach the quantum limit at which the Fermi level is close to the band edge and thus probe electron correlations in the fractionally filled Landau-level regime. Here we show that ohmic contacts to n-type molybdenum disulfide can be created over a temperature range from millikelvins to 300 K using a window-contacted technique. We observe field-effect mobilities of over 100,000 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ and quantum mobilities of over 3,000 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ in the conduction band at low temperatures. We also report evidence for fractional quantum Hall states at filling fractions of 4/5 and 2/5 in the lowest Landau levels of bilayer molybdenum disulfide.

理论上，基于半导体过渡金属二卤化物的晶体管可以在量子基态上提供高载流子迁移率、强自旋轨道耦合和固有的强电子相互作用。这使它们非常适合在低温条件下用于纳米电子学。然而，要在低温条件下与过渡金属二卤化物层建立稳固的欧姆接触非常困难。因此，无法达到费米级接近带边的量子极限，也就无法探测部分填充朗道级机制中的电子相关性。在这里，我们展示了利用窗口接触技术可以在毫开尔文到 300 K 的温度范围内创建 n 型二硫化钼的欧姆接触。在低温条件下，我们观察到导带的场效应迁移率超过 100,000 cm2 V-1 s-1，量子迁移率超过 3,000 cm2 V-1 s-1。我们还报告了双层二硫化钼最低朗道级中填充分数为 4/5 和 2/5 的分数量子霍尔态的证据。

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引用次数: 0

Light-emitting diodes based on intercalated transition metal dichalcogenides with suppressed efficiency roll-off at high generation rates 基于插层过渡金属二卤化物的发光二极管，在高发电率下可抑制效率衰减

IF 34.3 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-28 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01264-3

Shixuan Wang, Qiang Fu, Ting Zheng, Xu Han, Hao Wang, Tao Zhou, Jing Liu, Tianqi Liu, Yuwei Zhang, Kaiqi Chen, Qixing Wang, Zhexing Duan, Xin Zhou, Kenji Watanabe, Takashi Taniguchi, Jiaxu Yan, Yuan Huang, Yuwei Xiong, Joel K. W. Yang, Zhenliang Hu, Tao Xu, Litao Sun, Jinhua Hong, Yujie Zheng, Yumeng You, Qi Zhang, Junpeng Lu, Zhenhua Ni

The capabilities of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) based on two-dimensional materials are restricted by efficiency roll-off, which is induced by exciton–exciton annihilation, at high current densities. Dielectric or strain engineering can be used to reduce exciton–exciton annihilation rates in monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides, but achieving electroluminescence in two-dimensional LEDs without efficiency roll-off is challenging. Here we describe pulsed LEDs that are based on intercalated transition metal dichalcogenides and offer suppressed exciton–exciton annihilation at high exciton generation rates. We intercalate oxygen plasma into few-layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) and tungsten disulfide (WS₂) to create LEDs with a suppressed efficiency roll-off in both photo-excitation and electro-injection luminescence at all exciton densities up to around 10²⁰ cm⁻² s⁻¹. We attribute this suppression to a reduced exciton Bohr radius and exciton diffusion coefficient, as extracted from optical spectroscopy measurements. LEDs based on intercalated MoS₂ and WS₂ operate at maximum external quantum efficiencies of 0.02% and 0.78%, respectively, at a generation rate of around 10²⁰ cm⁻² s⁻¹.

基于二维材料的发光二极管（LED）的性能受到效率滚降的限制，而效率滚降是由高电流密度下的激子-激子湮灭引起的。介电工程或应变工程可用于降低单层过渡金属二掺杂化物中的激子-共振子湮灭率，但要在二维 LED 中实现无效率滚降的电致发光则极具挑战性。在这里，我们介绍了基于插层过渡金属二钙化物的脉冲 LED，它能在高激子产生率下抑制激子-激子湮灭。我们将氧等离子体插层到少层二硫化钼（MoS2）和二硫化钨（WS2）中，从而制造出在所有激子密度高达约 1020 cm-2 s-1 的情况下都能抑制光激发和电注入发光效率滚降的 LED。我们将这种抑制归因于激子玻尔半径和激子扩散系数的降低，这是从光学光谱测量中提取的。基于插层 MoS2 和 WS2 的 LED 在产生率约为 1020 cm-2 s-1 时的最大外部量子效率分别为 0.02% 和 0.78%。

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引用次数: 0

Metamaterial biosensors for driver monitoring 用于监测驾驶员的超材料生物传感器

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-25 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01266-1

Monitoring driver alertness could improve road safety, but the use of biosensors in moving vehicles is challenging. Now, a metamaterial biosensor has been designed that can be directly embroidered onto seat belts, enabling the contactless measurement of drivers’ vital signs. This biosensor shows reliable and consistent performance, even in challenging kinetic environments.

监测驾驶员的警觉性可以改善道路安全，但在行驶中的车辆上使用生物传感器是一项挑战。现在，我们设计出了一种超材料生物传感器，可以直接绣在安全带上，从而实现对驾驶员生命体征的非接触式测量。这种生物传感器即使在具有挑战性的运动环境中也能显示出可靠而稳定的性能。

引用次数: 0

Soft electronic vias and interconnects through rapid three-dimensional assembly of liquid metal microdroplets 通过液态金属微滴的快速三维组装实现软电子通孔和互连

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01268-z

Dong Hae Ho, Chenhao Hu, Ling Li, Michael D. Bartlett

The development of soft electronics requires methods to connect flexible and stretchable circuits. With conventional rigid electronics, vias are typically used to electrically connect circuits with multilayered architectures, increasing device integration and functionality. However, creating vias using soft conductors leads to additional challenges. Here we show that soft vias and planar interconnects can be created through the directed stratification of liquid metal droplets with programmed photocuring. Abnormalities that occur at the edges of a mask during ultraviolet exposure are leveraged to create vertical stair-like architectures of liquid metal droplets within the photoresin. The liquid metal droplets in the uncured (liquid) resin rapidly settle, assemble and then are fully cured, forming electrically conductive soft vias at multiple locations throughout the circuit in a parallel and spatially tunable manner. Our three-dimensional selective stratification method can also form seamless connections with planar interconnects, for in-plane and through-plane electrical integration. Multiple stair-like structures can be created in parallel by programmed curing of a photoresin containing liquid metal droplets, which then stratify and assemble to form soft electronic vias.

软电子器件的开发需要采用连接柔性和可拉伸电路的方法。在传统的刚性电子器件中，通孔通常用于多层结构电路的电气连接，从而提高器件的集成度和功能性。然而，使用软导体创建通孔会带来额外的挑战。在这里，我们展示了利用程序光固化技术对液态金属液滴进行定向分层，从而创建软通孔和平面互连。利用紫外线曝光时掩膜边缘出现的异常，可以在光刻胶中形成垂直的阶梯状液态金属液滴结构。未固化（液态）树脂中的液态金属液滴迅速沉淀、组装，然后完全固化，以平行和空间可调的方式在整个电路的多个位置形成导电软孔。我们的三维选择性分层方法还能与平面互连器件形成无缝连接，实现面内和面内电气集成。

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引用次数: 0

Twenty years of graphene electronics 石墨烯电子技术二十年

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-24 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01290-1

Graphene devices have undergone substantial development in the past two decades, but introducing new materials into commercial foundries remains problematic.

石墨烯设备在过去二十年中得到了长足发展，但将新材料引入商业代工厂仍是个问题。

引用次数: 0

CMOS-compatible strain engineering for monolayer semiconductor transistors 单层半导体晶体管的 CMOS 兼容应变工程

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-23 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01244-7

Marc Jaikissoon, Çağıl Köroğlu, Jerry A. Yang, Kathryn Neilson, Krishna C. Saraswat, Eric Pop

Strain engineering has played a key role in modern silicon electronics, having been introduced as a mobility booster in the 1990s and commercialized in the early 2000s. Achieving similar advances with two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors in a complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible manner could improve the industrial viability of 2D material transistors. Here, we show that silicon nitride capping layers can impart strain to monolayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) transistors on conventional silicon substrates, improving their performance with a CMOS-compatible approach, at a low thermal budget of 350 °C. Strained back-gated and dual-gated MoS2 transistors exhibit median increases in on-state current of up to 60% and 45%, respectively. The greatest improvements are found when reducing both transistor channels and contacts from micrometre-scale to 200 nm, reaching saturation currents of 488 µA µm−1 in devices with just 400 nm contact pitch. Simulations show that the performance enhancement is mainly due to tensile strain lowering the contact Schottky barriers, and that further reducing device dimensions, including contacts, could lead to additional increases in strain and performance. The on-current performance of MoS2-based transistors can be improved by using silicon nitride capping layers that apply strain to the devices.

应变工程在现代硅电子学中发挥了关键作用，它在 20 世纪 90 年代被引入作为移动性的助推器，并在 21 世纪初实现了商业化。以与互补金属氧化物半导体（CMOS）兼容的方式实现二维（2D）半导体的类似进步，可以提高二维材料晶体管的工业可行性。在这里，我们展示了氮化硅封盖层可以在传统硅衬底上向单层二硫化钼（MoS2）晶体管传递应变，从而在 350 ℃ 的低热预算条件下，通过 CMOS 兼容方法提高晶体管的性能。受约束背栅和双栅 MoS2 晶体管的导通电流中值分别增加了 60% 和 45%。当晶体管沟道和触点从微米级缩小到 200 纳米时，性能提升最大，在触点间距仅为 400 纳米的器件中，饱和电流达到 488 µA µm-1。模拟结果表明，性能的提高主要是由于拉伸应变降低了触点肖特基势垒，而进一步缩小器件尺寸（包括触点）可能会导致应变和性能的进一步提高。

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引用次数: 0

2D transistors feel the strain 二维晶体管感受压力

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-23 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01249-2

Jinghui Gao, Yuan Liu

CMOS-compatible silicon nitride capping layers can be used to strain monolayer MoS2 transistors on rigid substrates, enhancing their electrical performance.

与 CMOS 兼容的氮化硅封盖层可用于在刚性衬底上应变单层 MoS2 晶体管，从而提高其电气性能。

引用次数: 0

Superconducting qubits at scale 超导量子比特

IF 33.7 1区工程技术 Q1 ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

Nature Electronics

Pub Date : 2024-10-21 DOI: 10.1038/s41928-024-01283-0

Katharina Zeissler

引用次数: 0

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