Journal of Hydrology最新文献

{"title":"A Multi-model approach for remote sensing-based actual evapotranspiration mapping using Google Earth Engine (ETMapper-GEE)","authors":"Abdelrazek Elnashar ,&nbsp;Shahab Aldin Shojaeezadeh ,&nbsp;Tobias Karl David Weber","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133062","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133062","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate estimation of actual evapotranspiration (ET_a) through remote sensing (RS) is essential for effective large-scale water management. We developed an EvapoTranspiration Mapper in the Google Earth Engine environment (ETMapper-GEE) to estimate RS-ET_a using Landsat satellite data employing four models: Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL), Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC), surface temperature-vegetation-based triangle (TriAng), and Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop). The estimation integrates extrapolation approaches (Evaporative Fraction (EF) and EvapoTranspiration Fraction (ETF)), reference ET types (grass (ET_o) and alfalfa (ET_r)), and climate forcing datasets (the fifth generation of the European ReAnalysis (ERA5-Land) and the Climate Forecast System version 2 (CFSv2)). The ETMapper was evaluated against observed data from flux towers in Germany for the period 2020 to 2022. The results showed that EF outperformed the ETF approach, with a more than an 8 % higher correlation of determination (R²) and 35 % lower Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) compared to the other approaches. Among the EF approaches, TriAng (RMSE = 1.38 mm d^-1) exhibited the best performance, followed by METRIC (1.69 mm d^-1) and SEBAL (2.07 mm d^-1). Using ETMapper with ET_o resulted in at least 4 % higher R² and reduction in RMSE by at least 29 % compared to ET_r. Forcing ETMapper with ERA5 yielded better accuracy (R² &gt; 4 %, RMSE &lt; 12 %) than when using CFSv2. This study provides an integrated framework for RS-ET_a estimation, supporting water-related Sustainable Development Goals, especially in agricultural contexts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133062"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143654614","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Global groundwater sustainability: A critical review of strategies and future pathways","authors":"Fatemeh Karandish,&nbsp;Sida Liu,&nbsp;Inge de Graaf","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133060","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133060","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Groundwater is essential for sustaining life on Earth, yet it faces critical threats from unsustainable exploitation. Here, we conducted a critical analysis of 386 peer-reviewed sources to examine commonly introduced conservation measures, their feasibility, and potential implications, along with an additional assessment to explore spatial opportunities for sustainable groundwater management. A <em>meta</em>-analysis was also performed to investigate the major driving factors contributing to rebound effects – where increased resource efficiency let to converse effect regarding resource use – and the failures of adopted measures. Delving into the specifics of groundwater governance in the five top-consuming countries, we further identified reinforcing policies to address groundwater overexploitation and proposed necessary revisions to promote sustainability. According to the results, the effectiveness of efforts to improve groundwater productivity significantly depended on water and land scarcity, as well as strict regulatory policies, and didn’t always result in groundwater savings. Rebound effects were more likely under supply-side solutions, with potential overexploitation increases of up to 52% in 50% of cases. Although demand-side solutions reduced overexploitation rates to as low as 3%, they were still ineffective in 69% of cases for aquifer recovery in the absence of strict regulatory policies. In general, groundwater stabilization was achieved in less than 30% of the case studies, mostly when multiple measures were implemented, highlighting that no single solution category can sustainably control aquifer depletion. Addressing economic water scarcity and closing yield gaps had the potential to save groundwater and enhance food security in 25% and 75% of the world, respectively. According to the policy series in top major groundwater-consuming countries, the late initiation of recovery processes, significant conflicts between groundwater protection and national socioeconomic and political policies, predominant state-centered governance, lack of a nexus approach and integrated water management, the oversight of groundwater’s global significance, institutional corruption, and insufficient government commitment to aquifer recovery were among the most common factors reinforcing unsustainable groundwater management.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133060"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143621336","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Disentangling the dominance of atmospheric and soil water stress on vegetation productivity in global drylands","authors":"Jiahe Yu ,&nbsp;Weiguang Wang ,&nbsp;Zefeng Chen ,&nbsp;Mingzhu Cao ,&nbsp;Haiyang Qian","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133043","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133043","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Atmospheric water demands and soil moisture are crucial components of vegetation water stress, especially for dryland ecosystems where water availability is a severe constraint for their sustainable development. Although the effects of water stress on vegetation productivity and the underlying ecological mechanism have been recognized extensively, the relative contribution of atmospheric and soil water stress changes on vegetation productivity are still in debate, and their temporal dynamics remain unclear. To fill this knowledge gap, here we collected remote sensing meteorological, root-zone soil moisture and vegetation productivity proxies (represented by kernel Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, kNDVI and Nirv-GPP) during the period 1982–2015 to quantify the sensitivity of vegetation productivity to atmospheric water stress (represented by vapor pressure deficit (VPD)), soil water stress (represented by root-zone soil moisture (SM)) and their interaction (represented by SM × VPD) across global drylands, based on a series of dedicated factorial experiments within random forest (RF) framework. The results showed that soil water stress exerted predominant influence on vegetation carbon uptake spatially throughout the study period. Moreover, a rising sensitivity of vegetation productivity to SM and a declining sensitivity to VPD were widely captured. We also found that atmospheric water stress dominated the temporal change in the sensitivity of vegetation productivity to their interactive effect, indicating a weakening importance of soil water stress. Our research highlights the increasing importance of atmospheric water stress and enhances our understanding of how vegetation carbon and water cycles respond to climate change in dryland ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133043"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143654611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Qualitative assessment model for longitudinal riverbed erosion and deposition based on suspended sediment impacts and hydraulic geometry relationship","authors":"Hyunseung Kim ,&nbsp;Hyeri Yoo ,&nbsp;Kyungrock Paik ,&nbsp;Dae-Hong Kim","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133049","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133049","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite extensive research, simply predicting changes in the riverbed morphology, particularly determining whether erosion or deposition will occur, remains a significant challenge. This study introduces an analytical model that integrates hydraulic geometry with sediment transport equations to qualitatively predict the evolution of riverbed morphology in the longitudinal direction. Building on the foundational theories of Leopold and Maddock (1953), this model extends traditional hydraulic geometry by incorporating downstream exponents of suspended sediment concentration, revealing four distinct riverbed evolution patterns. This provides a comprehensive and practical understanding of sediment dynamics in rivers. The model was validated against field data and computational simulations to ensure its reliability in capturing complex fluvial geomorphological processes. This analytical model offers the advantages of simplified data requirements and enhanced flexibility, making it suitable for the preliminary assessments of detailed engineering designs and field studies. This provides insights into traditional river geomorphology phenomena, explaining why riverbeds are more dynamic than static, the sediment management challenges posed by levee-oriented river management, and the persistence of concave riverbed formations near river mouths.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133049"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143636996","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring how coordination, robustness, and uncertainties shaping the management of multi-purpose water resources system","authors":"Kang Ren ,&nbsp;Qiong Chen ,&nbsp;Shengzhi Huang ,&nbsp;Qiang Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133064","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133064","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Water resources systems require robust management strategies to achieve optimal performance under uncertainties while balancing conflicting objectives. However, these strategies are often derived from a single problem framing, disregarding potential errors and uncertainties that may affect their robustness. This study advances integrated operating policy design for multi-reservoir systems by exploring the robustness of different problem formulations in mitigating the effects of uncertainties on water resources management. We employe the Evolutionary Multi-objective Direct Policy Search (EMODPS) to approximate operating policies under various problem formulations of a multi-reservoir control problem. These policies were then re-evaluated over uncertain flow sets based on different robust definitions (i.e., low to high-risk aversions). Finally, we use a bottom-up scenario discovery method to disclose the states (i.e., success or failure) of the multi-reservoir system. Results show that trade-offs between the objectives of the multi-reservoir system vary significantly across different problem formulations. Although formulations with high-dimensional objectives can improve system trade-offs, they do not necessarily guarantee sufficient robustness to achieve expected performance under uncertainties. In this system, critical runoff signatures identified through bottom-up scenario discovery are independent of the chosen robustness metrics and are most likely to cause the system to cross tipping points from success to failure. These signatures should be continuously monitored and evaluated in future management efforts. This study contributes to the field by highlighting the importance of considering multiple problem formulations and their impact on the robustness of water resources management strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133064"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143621353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quadratic relationships between the evaporation loss fraction and the root water uptake ratio in a wheat-maize rotation system","authors":"Yingbo Liu ,&nbsp;Yusen Yuan ,&nbsp;Xiaolin Yang ,&nbsp;Manoj Shukla ,&nbsp;Taisheng Du","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133066","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133066","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Quantifying crop water uses and non-productive water loss under irrigation conditions plays an important role in the rational distribution of water resources. The hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope methods have been used in agricultural studies to quantify root water uptake (RWU) patterns and soil evaporation losses (<em>f</em>). However, their relationships and mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, we used the Bayesian stable isotope mixing (MixSIAR) model to quantify RWU patterns, and the Craig-Gordon model to quantify the evaporation loss of the winter wheat-summer maize rotation system under different irrigation conditions. Results of the MixSIAR model showed that 0–40 cm soil water was the main source of the two crops, contributing more than 50 % of soil water uptake. The crop water source changes were regulated by both root development and water availability, and this combined effect was enhanced by different irrigation treatments. The root water uptake ratio at 0–20 cm showed quadratic relationships with evaporation loss fraction. The <em>f</em> threshold point marks the breakpoint where root water uptake is affected by relative humidity or soil water content. The variation in <em>f</em> between wheat and maize is related to the physiological regulation of water in different species. It could be used to monitor plant water deficit status, and to distinguish root-distribution-dependent and soil–water-availability-dependent root water uptake patterns. Our research investigates the mechanisms behind changes in crop water use patterns, which will aid in developing more rational crop rotation systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133066"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143628982","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dam leakage potential related to karstification in limestone bedrock: Effects of temperature and stress-induced anisotropy","authors":"Chuanyin Jiang ,&nbsp;Xiaoguang Wang ,&nbsp;Hervé Jourde","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133061","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133061","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Increased leakage at dam sites due to the dissolution widening of fractures in the sub-surface soluble rocks, i.e., karstification, poses a great threat to the longevity of dam structures. The elevated hydraulic gradient induced by impounded water may significantly accelerate karstification, dramatically increasing leakage by several orders of magnitude. Many previous numerical studies on karstification and leakage at dam sites have overlooked the effects of stress-dependent aperture heterogeneity and anisotropy as well as vertical temperature variations. In this study, we quantified the effects of stress and temperature on leakage dynamics using a coupled thermo-hydro-chemical model incorporating stress-dependent initial aperture fields. Results indicate that stress-induced aperture fields play a primary role in dissolution behaviors compared to the temperature effect. Initial aperture anisotropy controls the preferential penetration directions of dissolution fronts, and anisotropic stress conditions may accelerate breakthrough by up to 40% compared to an isotropic stress condition. The consideration of temperature effect leads to a delayed breakthrough by 10%–16% due to mineral precipitation (chemical control) and elevated fluid viscosity (hydraulic control). The temperature effects are also dependent on the different dissolution pathways controlled by aperture anisotropy and become more pronounced under a low initial rate where breakthrough times may be further delayed by up to 30%. This study offers valuable implications for designing engineering strategies in limestone bedrock dam construction to mitigate leakage hazards and extend structural longevity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133061"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143628937","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Contrast or Diversity: Non-Flood sampling in urban flood susceptibility modelling","authors":"Huabing Huang,&nbsp;Zhiwen Tao,&nbsp;Jiayin Zhan,&nbsp;Changpeng Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133053","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133053","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Flood susceptibility modeling is a typical imbalanced problem in which the amount of flood data is much smaller than that of non-flood data. To ensure balanced learning, only a small fraction of non-flood data is selected for machine learning. Traditional sampling methods, such as Random Sampling (RS) and Stratified Sampling (SS), neglect abundant information within non-flood data and its relationship with flood data. This neglect leads to insufficient binary classification performance and biased susceptibility estimation, both of which are influenced by sample contrast and diversity, respectively. Unfortunately, these two objectives cannot be achieved simultaneously due to the trade-off between sample contrast and diversity. This dual-objective optimization requires a trade-off between contrast and diversity in sample quality. This study proposed a Distance-Based Sampling (DBS) framework that connects non-flood samples to flood data using Euclidean distance. Ten DBS scenarios with varying contrast and diversity levels (from 0.0 to 1.0 to 0.9–1.0) were designed for systematic evaluation. The best DBS scenario was further compared with RS, SS, and Inverse-Occurrence Sampling (IOS). To derive robust results, four machine learning techniques—Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—were employed in two heterogeneous urban districts in Guangzhou, China, along with multiple indices, i.e. Area Under the Curve (AUC), mean susceptibility, standard deviation of susceptibility, and flood density order. The main findings of this study were as follows: (1) High sample contrast led to excellent binary classification performance but resulted in an overestimation of flood susceptibility. (2) High sample diversity resulted in insufficient binary classification performance and an underestimation of flood susceptibility. (3) Under the DBS framework, the performance curve of the dual-objective problem is unimodal. The best performance was achieved at a trade-off between contrast and diversity, specifically in the DBS scenario 0.3–1.0. (4) The DBS scenario 0.3–1.0 outperformed RS, SS, and IOS. Finally, this study underscores the critical role of non-flood sample quality and the balance between sample contrast and diversity in flood susceptibility modeling. The proposed DBS framework is objective and flexible, and can be applied to negative sampling in susceptibility modeling for other hazards, such as landslides and wildfires.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"656 ","pages":"Article 133053"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143610873","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Estimating soil hydraulic conductivity from time-lapse ground-penetrating radar data in podzolic soils using the green-ampt model","authors":"Juwonlo Dahunsi,&nbsp;Sashini Pathirana,&nbsp;Mumtaz Cheema,&nbsp;Manokararajah Krishnapillai,&nbsp;Lakshman Galagedara","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133059","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133059","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Efficient soil water management and prediction of contaminant transport requires a deep understanding of spatial and temporal variation in soil hydraulic properties (SHPs). The growing interest in using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for large-scale and non-destructive estimation of SHPs demands more effective approaches. This study evaluates the potential for monitoring soil water content (SWC) changes and estimating field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (<em>K_fs</em>) by employing the Green-Ampt (GA) model using GPR time-lapse data. At two locations at a podzolic soil site in western Newfoundland, Canada, infiltration experiments were carried out on different days using the Beerkan method, which involved applying equal volumes of water over a short duration. A surface GPR system with a center frequency of 500 MHz was employed to monitor these experiments. The downward movement of the wetting zone during infiltration was monitored by collecting time-lapse GPR traces every 5 s. SWC changes estimated from GPR (GPR-SWC), and soil moisture probes (SMP-SWC) (installed to a depth of 0.20 m) were used as parameters in the GA model to estimate <em>K_fs</em>. Our findings show that GPR provided consistent information on the dielectric constant (r = 0.902) and SWC variations during the infiltration experiment at both locations. The average <em>K_fs</em> value (1.4 × 10^-5 ± 5.4 × 10^-6 m/s) estimated using the GPR-SWC in the GA model was in a similar magnitude to the theoretical value for the tested soil type and in close range to values measured by using conventional methods, although all approaches were significantly different. Further research is needed to validate this approach across various soil types and conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133059"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143642466","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Refining snow-streamflow dynamics in a Tibetan Plateau basin by incorporating snow depth and topography","authors":"Lei Tian ,&nbsp;Wenjie Wang ,&nbsp;Xiaogang Ma ,&nbsp;Hongdong Zhang ,&nbsp;Shuchen Guo ,&nbsp;Kai Yang ,&nbsp;Jie Wang ,&nbsp;Linhua Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133057","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133057","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Snow plays a crucial role in land surface hydrological and energy processes. Accurately representing the snow-streamflow relationship is important for understanding how climate change affects alpine hydrology. However, most land surface models and hydrological models’ snow schemes overlook the influences of snow depth and topography, causing uncertainties in snow and related hydrological processes simulations. This issue is more pronounced on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) due to its shallow snow and complex topography. The challenge of how inadequate snow cover parameterization affects snow and streamflow simulations is a critical scientific question. This study targets the upstream areas of the Heihe River basin on the TP. Using multi-source observational datasets and the WRF-Hydro model, we incorporated seven pre-existing snow schemes that consider snow depth and topography into the WRF-Hydro to identify the optimized scheme. Comparing the results simulated with the default and optimized schemes, we quantified the improvement in the representation of the snow-streamflow relationship by considering snow depth and topography and revealed the influencing mechanisms of these two factors. Results show that the default scheme largely overestimates snow cover fraction (<em>SCF</em>). Accounting for snow depth alone reduces the monthly <em>SCF</em> bias by 6.20%. When both snow depth and topography are considered, the monthly <em>SCF</em> bias is reduced by 20.88%. Moreover, the default scheme underestimates the cold-season streamflow and overestimates the warm-season streamflow. The optimized scheme greatly enhances the accuracy of streamflow simulation, reducing the cold-season streamflow underestimation by 12.13% and lowering the warm-season streamflow overestimation by 8.84%. Furthermore, such incorporation reduces albedo overestimation, increases absorbed shortwave radiation, and changes land surface temperature (<em>LST</em>) and surface resistance (<em>r_s</em>). <em>LST</em> and <em>r_s</em> are key variables through which snow influences evapotranspiration and snow water equivalent, eventually altering the snow-streamflow relationship. These findings highlight the importance of considering snow depth and topography in numerical simulations for alpine areas and provide valuable scientific support for understanding the response of hydrological processes to snow change under climate warming.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"657 ","pages":"Article 133057"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143654610","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}