Journal of Criminal Justice最新文献_第3页

Safe in segregation? Prison officers' perceptions of safety in solitary confinement 隔离安全吗？监狱官员对单独监禁的安全感

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102585

Samantha S. Plummer

Research on solitary confinement foregrounds its deleterious effects on incarcerated people's mental and physical health. Little research, by contrast, has examined the experiences of prison staff who work in solitary confinement units and whose use of discretion largely determines the quality of life for people held there. This article explores how a non-representative sample of 21 officers who work in solitary confinement units in a large maximum-security prison experience and understand their work. I find that this sample of officers prefers working in solitary confinement to general population because they view it as safer. Treating safety as multi-faceted and inclusive of matters of health and stress, I analyze which elements of safety officers emphasize and which they minimize as well as the implications of their orientations to safety for incarcerated people. I find that officers highlight how the isolation and incapacitation of incarcerated people in solitary confinement lessen their fears of physical violence. Yet, these conditions also threaten officers' safety by exposing them to health hazards and forcing incarcerated people into an extremely dependent state that is a source of conflict, potential violence, and stress. When conflicts do arise, officers tend to blame them on upper managements' attempts to ameliorate some of the pains of imprisonment. Together, these findings suggest that the same conditions that lead to harm and distress for staff and incarcerated people alike, also seem to be why officers who work in solitary confinement units prefer to do so.

对单独监禁的研究揭示了其对被监禁者身心健康的有害影响。相比之下，很少有研究调查在单独监禁单位工作的监狱工作人员的经历，他们的自由裁量权的使用在很大程度上决定了在那里被关押的人的生活质量。本文探讨了21名在大型最高安全监狱单独监禁单元工作的警官的非代表性样本，他们如何体验和理解他们的工作。我发现这些警官更喜欢在单独监禁中工作而不是在普通人群中因为他们认为这样更安全。将安全视为多方面的，包括健康和压力问题，我分析了安全官员强调哪些因素，最小化哪些因素，以及他们对被监禁人员安全取向的影响。我发现，官员们强调，被单独监禁的人被隔离和丧失行为能力，减轻了他们对身体暴力的恐惧。然而，这些条件也威胁到警察的安全，使他们面临健康危害，迫使被监禁的人处于一种极度依赖的状态，这是冲突、潜在暴力和压力的来源。当冲突发生时，警官们倾向于将其归咎于上级管理人员试图减轻监禁带来的一些痛苦。综上所述，这些发现表明，导致工作人员和被监禁者受到伤害和痛苦的相同条件，似乎也是在单独监禁单位工作的官员更愿意这样做的原因。

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引用次数: 0

Generalists or specialists? Unpacking crime trajectories of intimate partner violence offenders 通才还是专才？剖析亲密伴侣暴力犯罪者的犯罪轨迹

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102584

Jorge Rodríguez-Menés , Dimitris Pavlopoulos , Martí Rovira , Maike van Damme

This study examines the heterogeneity of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) perpetrators by distinguishing IPV specialists, whose violence is limited to partners, from IPV generalists, who also target non-partners, and comparing both to non-IPV violent offenders. Using comprehensive administrative records from Catalonia, we analyzed the complete criminal histories (1990–2019) of all individuals convicted of IPV between 2010 and 2015, alongside a 10 % sample of non-IPV violent offenders. A strict definition classified only one-quarter of IPV offenders as generalists, highlighting the impact of definitional choices on prevalence and offender profiles. Trajectory analyses identified five patterns of violent offending. IPV specialists were concentrated in late-onset, low-rate, short-duration trajectories, consistent with situational, relationship-bound violence. IPV generalists were more likely to follow early-onset, high-rate, long-duration trajectories resembling chronic violent offenders, but increasingly focused on partners with age. Differences in trajectories were only modestly explained by prior non-violent offending, suggesting that antisocial predispositions shape the target of violence more than its developmental pattern. Gender did not influence trajectory prevalence but strongly predicted the likelihood of targeting partners versus others, reflecting the interaction of patriarchal norms, situational factors, and individual predispositions in differentiating IPV specialists and generalists from other violent offenders. Overall, IPV perpetrators are heterogeneous in trajectories, offence patterns, persistence, and gender, underscoring the value of integrating typological and developmental perspectives and informing differentiated, context-sensitive interventions.

本研究通过区分亲密伴侣暴力专家（其暴力仅限于伴侣）和亲密伴侣暴力通才（其也针对非伴侣），并将两者与非亲密伴侣暴力犯罪者进行比较，研究了亲密伴侣暴力（IPV）犯罪者的异质性。利用加泰罗尼亚的综合行政记录，我们分析了2010年至2015年期间所有被判IPV罪的人的完整犯罪历史（1990年至2019年），以及10%的非IPV暴力犯罪者样本。一个严格的定义将只有四分之一的IPV罪犯归类为多面手，突出了定义选择对患病率和罪犯概况的影响。轨迹分析确定了暴力犯罪的五种模式。IPV专家集中于晚发性、低发生率、短持续时间的轨迹，与情境性、关系性暴力相一致。IPV多面手更有可能遵循早发、高发生率、持续时间长的轨迹，类似于慢性暴力犯罪者，但越来越多地关注年龄增长的伴侣。轨迹上的差异只能用先前的非暴力犯罪来解释，这表明反社会倾向比其发展模式更能塑造暴力的目标。性别不影响轨迹患病率，但强烈预测了针对伴侣而不是其他人的可能性，反映了父权规范、情境因素和个体倾向在区分IPV专家和通才与其他暴力犯罪者方面的相互作用。总体而言，IPV肇事者在轨迹、犯罪模式、持久性和性别方面都是异质的，这强调了整合类型和发展观点以及提供差异化、情境敏感干预措施的价值。

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引用次数: 0

Are sentencing disparities unavoidable? Lessons from centralized judicial training 量刑差异是不可避免的吗？集中司法培训的经验教训

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102582

Andrzej Uhl , Kamil Mamak

Sentencing disparities arise when judges impose different penalties in similar cases. Fundamentally unjust, such disparities have been a persistent target of reform. Instead of adopting numerical guidelines, Poland chose to centralize training and assessment of its judiciary in an effort to harmonize sentences. To measure the extent of sentencing disparities under the new system, we analyze sentences issued by trainee judges during a high-stakes judicial exam. This naturalistic approach allows us to mitigate the validity threats present in both observational and experimental vignette studies on sentencing disparities. Under controlled conditions, each trainee judge (n = 248) spent six hours drafting a judgment based on an identical 100-page case file concerning a single offender charged with two counts. Despite receiving the same centralized training over the preceding three years, judges imposed markedly different penalties in the same case – ranging sixfold from four to 24 months. Sentences followed a distinctly multimodal distribution, with clusters of most common dosages, typically round numbers of months. Defying ordinal deserts, judges showed little agreement on which of the two counts deserves a harsher penalty. They also differed in how they combined penalties for two counts, in whether they applied ancillary orders, such as victim compensation, and in the extent of compliance with the prosecutorial sentence recommendation. This first evaluation of sentencing disparities after the reform yields disappointing results. Without structured guidelines, judges may continue to impose highly idiosyncratic sentences.

当法官对类似案件判处不同刑罚时，就会出现量刑差异。这种根本不公平的差距一直是改革的目标。波兰没有采用数字准则，而是选择对其司法机构进行集中培训和评估，以努力统一量刑。为了衡量新制度下量刑差异的程度，我们分析了在高风险的司法考试中，实习法官发布的判决。这种自然主义的方法使我们能够减轻在量刑差异的观察和实验小插图研究中存在的效度威胁。在受控条件下，每位实习法官（n = 248）花了6个小时根据一份相同的100页案件文件起草判决，该案件涉及一名被控两项罪名的罪犯。尽管在前三年接受了同样的集中培训，但法官对同一案件施加的处罚明显不同——从4个月到24个月不等，刑罚是原来的6倍。句子遵循明显的多模态分布，最常见的剂量聚集在一起，通常是月的整数。法官们无视惯例，对两项罪名中哪一项应该受到更严厉的惩罚几乎没有达成一致。它们在如何对两项罪名合并处罚、是否适用辅助命令（如受害者赔偿）以及在多大程度上遵守检察官的量刑建议方面也存在差异。改革后对量刑差异的首次评估结果令人失望。如果没有结构化的指导方针，法官可能会继续施加非常特殊的判决。

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引用次数: 0

Is it a self-fulfilling prophecy?: Examining how parental and youth perceptions of future system involvement predict early adulthood criminal involvement 这是一个自我实现的预言吗？研究父母和青少年对未来系统参与的看法如何预测成年早期的犯罪参与

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102586

Tova A. Cohen , Ian A. Silver

Informal labeling, or unofficial labels imposed by oneself and others, has been linked to criminal legal involvement. However, it is still unclear whether self or familial labeling is more criminogenic. Using a subset of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) (N = 2980), the current study examines the association between self-perception and parental perception of incarceration by age 20, as well as criminal legal system involvement from ages 18–20 and 21–41. Results suggest that self-perception of incarceration by age 20 was positively associated with the number of arrests between 18 and 20 and after 20, while parental perception of incarceration by age 20 appeared to be associated with the number of months incarcerated from 18 to 20 and after 20. These results, overall, highlight that self and familial labeling could have distinct effects on future involvement in the criminal legal system, but both could be criminogenic.

非正式标签，或自己和他人强加的非正式标签，与刑事法律参与有关。然而，目前尚不清楚是自我标签还是家族标签更容易导致犯罪。本研究利用1997年全国青年纵向调查（NLSY97）（N = 2980）的一个小样本，考察了自我认知与父母在20岁时对监禁的认知之间的关系，以及18-20岁和21-41岁时刑事司法系统的参与。结果表明，20岁时对监禁的自我感知与18岁至20岁之间和20岁之后的被捕次数呈正相关，而父母对20岁时监禁的感知似乎与18岁至20岁之间和20岁之后的监禁月数相关。总的来说，这些结果强调了自我标签和家族标签对未来参与刑事法律体系可能有不同的影响，但两者都可能是犯罪的。

引用次数: 0

Public opinion and the immediate entry dilemma: A factorial survey experiment on active shooter response 民意与即刻进入困境：主动枪手反应的析因调查实验

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102578

M. Hunter Martaindale , Peter T. Tanksley

Active shooter events remain a critical public safety concern, with public expectations often centered on how quickly police intervene to stop the threat. While recent studies have examined how law enforcement officers view their role in these events, no research has directly measured citizen perceptions of officer actions. This study addresses that gap by using a quasi-experimental factorial survey with two national samples of U.S. adults. Respondents (n = 767, n = 827) each evaluated 10 randomly assigned vignettes depicting officer decisions during active shooter scenarios, resulting in more than 15,800 vignette assessments. Results show that citizens' judgments of appropriateness were driven less by situational “driving forces,” such as gunfire or wounded victims, and more by symbolic features of the event, particularly the location. Citizens strongly supported immediate entry in schools and parades, while support was lower in large malls where waiting for backup was viewed as more acceptable. These findings contrast with prior officer-focused research, which found that police judgments are primarily influenced by threat cues. The divergence underscores that public legitimacy cannot be fully understood through officer perspectives alone. Law enforcement policy and training may not be guided by public preferences, but citizen perceptions shape legitimacy, accountability, and trust following high-profile events. Future research should continue to explore how public expectations intersect with professional practices under conditions of extreme uncertainty.

活跃的枪手事件仍然是一个重要的公共安全问题，公众的期望往往集中在警方如何迅速干预以阻止威胁。虽然最近的研究调查了执法人员如何看待他们在这些事件中的角色，但没有研究直接衡量公民对官员行为的看法。本研究通过对两个美国成年人样本进行准实验因子调查来解决这一差距。受访者（n = 767, n = 827）每人评估了10个随机分配的小片段，这些小片段描述了活跃枪手场景下的警官决策，得出了超过15,800个小片段评估。结果表明，公民对适当性的判断较少受到情景“驱动力”的影响，如枪声或受伤的受害者，更多地受到事件的象征性特征，特别是地点的影响。市民强烈支持立即进入学校和游行，而在大型购物中心的支持率较低，在那里等待后援被认为是更可以接受的。这些发现与先前以警察为中心的研究形成对比，后者发现警察的判断主要受到威胁线索的影响。这种分歧强调，仅从官员的角度不能完全理解公共合法性。执法政策和培训可能不会以公众偏好为导向，但在高调事件发生后，公民的看法会影响合法性、问责制和信任。未来的研究应该继续探索在极端不确定的条件下，公众期望与专业实践是如何交叉的。

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引用次数: 0

Lethal violence in a Tourist City of the global south: Evidence from Recife, Brazil 全球南部旅游城市的致命暴力：来自巴西累西腓的证据

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102579

Duan Vilela Ferreira , Vania Aparecida Ceccato , Caroline Maria de Miranda Mota

The objective of this article is to investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of homicides in Recife, a major tourist destination in northeastern Brazil. We begin by analysing the distribution of homicides in relation to periods to assess later how different types of urban land uses, including leisure-related facilities, affect lethal violence using negative binomial regression models, over the period from 2017 to 2022. The findings indicate that some leisure-related areas, not all, contribute to shaping the spatial distribution of homicides. Yet lethal violence in Recife's impoverished neighbourhoods remains chronically high throughout the year. These results highlight the dual challenge faced by the city: managing seasonal risks linked to tourism while addressing persistent structural violence rooted in social inequality and organised crime.

本文的目的是调查累西腓凶杀案的时空模式，累西腓是巴西东北部的一个主要旅游目的地。我们首先分析凶杀案在不同时期的分布，然后使用负二项回归模型评估2017年至2022年期间不同类型的城市土地利用（包括休闲相关设施）如何影响致命暴力。研究结果表明，一些与休闲有关的地区，而不是所有地区，都有助于形成凶杀案的空间分布。然而，累西腓贫困社区的致命暴力事件全年仍居高不下。这些结果凸显了城市面临的双重挑战：管理与旅游业相关的季节性风险，同时解决植根于社会不平等和有组织犯罪的持续结构性暴力。

引用次数: 0

Scars that shape us: The role of gender in the ACE-delinquency pathway 塑造我们的伤疤：性别在ace犯罪途径中的作用

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102576

Ashleigh C. Anderson, Melissa S. Jones

Objectives

Research on the link between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and delinquency has grown substantially, yet significantly less empirical attention has been directed toward understanding whether and how the relationship differs by gender. While a small growing body of scholarship has examined this question, evidence of a gendered relationship between ACEs and delinquency remains inconsistent. These discrepancies are likely due to methodological differences across studies, including whether well-established correlates of delinquency are accounted for. The current study addresses these limitations.

Methods

Using survey data from a large, statewide representative sample of high school students in Florida (N = 20,564), we examine how gender shapes the association between ACEs and delinquency.

Results

ACEs were positively associated with delinquency, with each additional ACE linked to a significant increase in delinquent behavior. Although females reported higher ACE scores, males consistently showed stronger behavioral responses, with significantly higher delinquency rates across all ACE scores. While the gender gap remained stable, a slight narrowing at higher ACE exposure did not reach statistical significance, suggesting that ACEs are important for both males and females but relate to delinquency in gender-specific ways, particularly at lower to moderate ACE levels.

Conclusions

We discuss the implications of these findings for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies targeting ACEs.

关于不良童年经历（ace）和犯罪之间联系的研究已经大量增加，然而，对于理解这种关系是否以及如何因性别而不同的实证关注却明显较少。虽然越来越多的学者研究了这个问题，但ace和犯罪之间存在性别关系的证据仍然不一致。这些差异很可能是由于研究方法的差异，包括是否考虑了犯罪的既定相关因素。目前的研究解决了这些局限性。方法使用来自佛罗里达州高中生的大型全州代表性样本（N = 20,564）的调查数据，我们研究了性别如何影响ace和犯罪之间的联系。结果ACE与不良行为呈正相关，每增加一个ACE与不良行为的显著增加有关。尽管女性报告了更高的ACE分数，但男性始终表现出更强的行为反应，在所有ACE分数中，犯罪率都明显更高。虽然性别差异保持稳定，但在ACE水平较高的情况下，这一差距略有缩小，但没有统计学意义，这表明ACE对男性和女性都很重要，但与性别特定的犯罪方式有关，尤其是在ACE水平较低至中等的情况下。我们讨论了这些发现对制定针对ace的有效预防和干预策略的意义。

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引用次数: 0

High resting heart rate reduces risk of white-collar criminality 高静息心率降低白领犯罪的风险

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-11-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102574

Shichun Ling , Sofi Oskarsson , Anneli Andersson , Henrik Larsson , Catherine Tuvblad

Low resting heart rate (RHR) is considered the best-replicated biological correlate for antisocial and conventional criminal behaviors, but there is limited research investigating whether this extends to white-collar crime. Using longitudinal data (n = 707,490) from multiple population-based Swedish registers and Cox proportional hazard regressions, results suggest that after accounting for demographic and criminality covariates, low RHR is not associated with white-collar criminality (aHR: 1.02, 95 % CI [0.99, 1.06]) whereas high RHR is associated with a lower risk of white-collar criminality (aHR: 0.92, 95 % CI [0.89, 0.95]), compared to average RHR. Findings indicate that low RHR is not associated with white-collar criminality, per se, but high RHR is a protective factor, reducing the risk of white-collar criminality.

低静息心率（RHR）被认为是反社会和传统犯罪行为的最佳生物学关联，但关于这是否适用于白领犯罪的研究有限。使用来自多个基于人口的瑞典登记册的纵向数据（n = 707,490）和Cox比例风险回归，结果表明，在考虑人口统计学和犯罪协变量后，与平均RHR相比，低RHR与白领犯罪无关（aHR: 1.02, 95% CI[0.99, 1.06]），而高RHR与白领犯罪风险较低相关（aHR: 0.92, 95% CI[0.89, 0.95]）。研究结果表明，低RHR本身与白领犯罪无关，但高RHR是一种保护因素，降低了白领犯罪的风险。

引用次数: 0

Honesty as a “communicative tool” in sentencing: A study of judges in the U.S. and Australia 诚信作为量刑中的“沟通工具”：对美国和澳大利亚法官的研究

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-11-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102575

Colleen M. Berryessa , Melissa de Vel-Palumbo , Carolina R. Caliman , Madison Baczuk

This study, drawing from interviews with trial court judges in the U.S. and Australia (N = 47), builds a theoretical qualitative model that illustrates the conceptualization, significance, and influence of a defendant's honesty as a “communicative tool” in punishment and sentencing practices for judges in these jurisdictions. A constant comparative analysis shows that judges from both jurisdictions generally believe that a defendant's honesty acts as a communicative tool during sentencing, and this can lead them to reconfigure their sentencing practices–which they view as representing the interests of victims and the community–to prioritize mercy as well as rehabilitative and reparative ideals. Further, judges look for defendants to communicate honesty in ways that enable them to develop a complete understanding of its weight during sentencing, with U.S. judges particularly focusing on body language and nonverbal indicators. Overall, this study not only represents the first known empirical examination of a defendant's honesty within the communicative theory of punishment framework but also assesses if and how it translates across national cultures and criminal-legal systems, as well as how judges believe guidelines and legislation limit sentencing decisions involving honesty in Australia and the U.S. Implications of this work for sentencing practices are discussed.

本研究通过对美国和澳大利亚初审法院法官的访谈（N = 47），构建了一个理论定性模型，该模型说明了被告诚实作为一种“沟通工具”在这些司法管辖区的惩罚和量刑实践中的概念化、意义和影响。一项持续的比较分析表明，来自两个司法管辖区的法官普遍认为，被告的诚实在量刑过程中起到了沟通的作用，这可能导致他们重新配置量刑实践——他们认为这代表了受害者和社区的利益——优先考虑仁慈以及康复和赔偿的理想。此外，法官希望被告能够以一种能够让他们在宣判过程中完全理解诚实的重要性的方式进行沟通，美国法官尤其关注肢体语言和非语言指标。总的来说，这项研究不仅代表了刑罚交际理论框架内被告诚实的第一个已知的实证检验，而且还评估了它是否以及如何在国家文化和刑事法律制度中转化，以及法官如何认为指导方针和立法限制了澳大利亚和美国涉及诚实的量刑决定。

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引用次数: 0

Pandemic, protests, and policing: Clearing crime in 2020 流行病、抗议和警务：2020年清除犯罪

IF 2.5 1区社会学 Q1 CRIMINOLOGY & PENOLOGY

Journal of Criminal Justice

Pub Date : 2025-11-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102570

Aki Roberts, John M. Roberts Jr.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the George Floyd murder and subsequent public reaction disrupted American policing in 2020. Because these socio-political events substantially affected agency practices and reduced citizen engagement in crime investigation, they may have been reflected in a key policing outcome, crime clearance by arrest. In survival analysis of 437,763 serious crime incidents from 131 police agencies in 2019 and 2020, drawn from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), we compared clearance hazard rates in periods of 2020 defined by the pandemic and George Floyd’s murder to those in corresponding periods of 2019, controlling for other agency/jurisdiction-level and incident-level factors. Results indicated slightly higher clearance in the initial pandemic period of 2020 than in the equivalent period of 2019. Following the Floyd killing, clearance was lower in 2020 than in the corresponding periods of 2019. Additional analyses separated incidents by city size and crime type and examined data for the early part of 2021. Pandemic-related changes in policing may not have been detrimental to arrest clearance, but a highly prominent police killing may have been. Policymakers and police leaders should closely examine pandemic-related organizational changes and consider whether continuing at least some would improve clearance rates and other policing outcomes. In addition to reducing incidents of police lethal violence, the police should focus on building legitimacy and fostering community engagement by consistently applying principles of procedural justice in everyday interactions with the public.

2020年，新冠肺炎大流行、乔治·弗洛伊德谋杀案以及随后的公众反应扰乱了美国的警务工作。由于这些社会政治事件严重影响了机构的做法，减少了公民对犯罪调查的参与，因此它们可能反映在一个关键的警务成果上，即通过逮捕清除犯罪。在对2019年和2020年来自131个警察机构的437,763起严重犯罪事件的生存分析中，我们从国家事件报告系统（NIBRS）中提取数据，将2020年期间由大流行和乔治·弗洛伊德谋杀案定义的清除危险率与2019年同期的清除危险率进行了比较，控制了其他机构/管辖级别和事件级别的因素。结果显示，2020年大流行初期的清除率略高于2019年同期。在弗洛伊德被杀之后，2020年的清除率低于2019年同期。其他分析按城市规模和犯罪类型对事件进行了分类，并检查了2021年初的数据。与大流行病有关的警务变化可能不会对逮捕许可造成不利影响，但一项极为突出的警察杀人事件可能会造成不利影响。政策制定者和警察领导人应密切审查与大流行有关的组织变革，并考虑是否继续至少一些改革会提高清除率和其他警务成果。除了减少警察致命暴力事件外，警察还应通过在与公众的日常互动中始终坚持应用程序正义原则，专注于建立合法性和促进社区参与。

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引用次数: 0