Pub Date : 2025-06-03DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00682-x
Madeleine C. S. Humphreys, Olivier Namur, Wendy A. Bohrson, Pierre Bouilhol, George F. Cooper, Kari M. Cooper, Christian Huber, C. Johan Lissenberg, Eduardo Morgado, Frank J. Spera
Much of Earth’s magma is stored as extensive crystal mush systems, yet the prevalence of physical processes operating within mushes and their importance in volcanically active regions remain enigmatic. In this Review, we explore the physical properties and key processes of crystal mush systems. The initiation, evolution and decline of volcanic systems, modulated by heat supply and loss, could generate differences in the prevalence of mush processes through space and time. Additionally, regional tectonics alter mush properties, with mushes in cool wet settings having persistent residual melt, permitting more effective melt segregation than in hot dry settings. Disaggregation of mushes results in crystal mush material being mobilized or entrained into lavas and erupted, presenting opportunities to define the timescales and chemistry of some mush processes in volcanically active regions. Mush systems can be observed on length scales ranging from kilometres (using geological mapping) to micrometres (using crystal textures). Therefore, it is difficult to integrate data and interpretations across different fields. Improved integration of thermodynamics, textural analysis, geochemistry, modelling and experiments, alongside inputs from adjacent fields such as porous media dynamics, engineering and metallurgy will help to advance understanding of mush systems and ultimately improve hazard evaluation at active and dormant volcanic systems. Crystal mush processes are key to magmatic differentiation, volcanic system behaviour and some mineral resources. This Review discusses the processes involved in mush formation, rejuvenation and eruption, and how tectonics and crustal thermal maturity impacts these processes.
{"title":"Crystal mush processes and crustal magmatism","authors":"Madeleine C. S. Humphreys, Olivier Namur, Wendy A. Bohrson, Pierre Bouilhol, George F. Cooper, Kari M. Cooper, Christian Huber, C. Johan Lissenberg, Eduardo Morgado, Frank J. Spera","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00682-x","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00682-x","url":null,"abstract":"Much of Earth’s magma is stored as extensive crystal mush systems, yet the prevalence of physical processes operating within mushes and their importance in volcanically active regions remain enigmatic. In this Review, we explore the physical properties and key processes of crystal mush systems. The initiation, evolution and decline of volcanic systems, modulated by heat supply and loss, could generate differences in the prevalence of mush processes through space and time. Additionally, regional tectonics alter mush properties, with mushes in cool wet settings having persistent residual melt, permitting more effective melt segregation than in hot dry settings. Disaggregation of mushes results in crystal mush material being mobilized or entrained into lavas and erupted, presenting opportunities to define the timescales and chemistry of some mush processes in volcanically active regions. Mush systems can be observed on length scales ranging from kilometres (using geological mapping) to micrometres (using crystal textures). Therefore, it is difficult to integrate data and interpretations across different fields. Improved integration of thermodynamics, textural analysis, geochemistry, modelling and experiments, alongside inputs from adjacent fields such as porous media dynamics, engineering and metallurgy will help to advance understanding of mush systems and ultimately improve hazard evaluation at active and dormant volcanic systems. Crystal mush processes are key to magmatic differentiation, volcanic system behaviour and some mineral resources. This Review discusses the processes involved in mush formation, rejuvenation and eruption, and how tectonics and crustal thermal maturity impacts these processes.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 6","pages":"401-416"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122816","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-29DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00681-y
Erich M. Fischer, Margot Bador, Raphaël Huser, Elizabeth J. Kendon, Alexander Robinson, Sebastian Sippel
Numerous weather and climate extremes have broken long-standing observed records. These record-breaking (or record-shattering if the margin is large) events have substantial socioeconomic impacts and pose adaptation and planning challenges. In this Review, we assess observed and projected changes in record-breaking climate extremes. Record occurrence can be understood with statistical considerations, and their changes quantified as the record ratio — the observed frequency of record events relative to a stationary climate. Many climate variables have witnessed changes in their record-breaking frequency. For example, all-time daily hot records on land are more than four times higher in 2016–2024 than expected without climate change, and all-time cold records two times lower; similarly, daily maximum precipitation records and monthly dryness records are more than 40% and 10% higher, respectively. In the future, slowing the rate of warming reduces record ratios, highlighting the benefits of mitigation. For instance, by the end of the century, multimodel mean record hot events are projected to be 15.7 more likely than in a stationary climate under SSP3-7.0, but only ~2.9 and ~1.8 more likely for SSP1-2.6 and SSP1-1.9, respectively, lower than those observed today. New record cold will become virtually non-existent under all emission scenarios. Among others, records have also been broken for ice loss, sea ice and ocean heat content, but quantifying record statistics is challenged by data availability, duration and quality. Addressing these data challenges and developing statistical methods to account for multivariate records are research priorities. Multiple record-breaking climate events have been observed, posing socioeconomic risks. This Review outlines observed and projected changes in record-breaking events, revealing 300–350% increases in the frequency of daily record heat in 2016–2024 relative to a stationary climate.
{"title":"Record-breaking extremes in a warming climate","authors":"Erich M. Fischer, Margot Bador, Raphaël Huser, Elizabeth J. Kendon, Alexander Robinson, Sebastian Sippel","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00681-y","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00681-y","url":null,"abstract":"Numerous weather and climate extremes have broken long-standing observed records. These record-breaking (or record-shattering if the margin is large) events have substantial socioeconomic impacts and pose adaptation and planning challenges. In this Review, we assess observed and projected changes in record-breaking climate extremes. Record occurrence can be understood with statistical considerations, and their changes quantified as the record ratio — the observed frequency of record events relative to a stationary climate. Many climate variables have witnessed changes in their record-breaking frequency. For example, all-time daily hot records on land are more than four times higher in 2016–2024 than expected without climate change, and all-time cold records two times lower; similarly, daily maximum precipitation records and monthly dryness records are more than 40% and 10% higher, respectively. In the future, slowing the rate of warming reduces record ratios, highlighting the benefits of mitigation. For instance, by the end of the century, multimodel mean record hot events are projected to be 15.7 more likely than in a stationary climate under SSP3-7.0, but only ~2.9 and ~1.8 more likely for SSP1-2.6 and SSP1-1.9, respectively, lower than those observed today. New record cold will become virtually non-existent under all emission scenarios. Among others, records have also been broken for ice loss, sea ice and ocean heat content, but quantifying record statistics is challenged by data availability, duration and quality. Addressing these data challenges and developing statistical methods to account for multivariate records are research priorities. Multiple record-breaking climate events have been observed, posing socioeconomic risks. This Review outlines observed and projected changes in record-breaking events, revealing 300–350% increases in the frequency of daily record heat in 2016–2024 relative to a stationary climate.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 7","pages":"456-470"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122822","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-29DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00673-y
Fiona H. M. Tang, Kris A. G. Wyckhuys, Zijian Li, Federico Maggi, Vera Silva
Approximately 3.7 Tg of pesticides are used annually in global crop production to help protect yield, but pesticides pose risks to ecosystem and human health. In this Review, we summarize the pathways causing transboundary environmental and human health impacts of pesticide use in food production, and explore strategies to reduce reliance on pesticides. Once applied to crops, pesticides are transported through surface and groundwater flows, atmospheric dispersion and wildlife migration. Globally, 7.2% of pesticide input leaches below the root zone potentially reaching groundwater, with atmospheric droplets (10–50 µm in size) transported between 250 m and several kilometres from the point of application. International food trade drives pesticide use and, of all food products, fruit and vegetables have the highest embodiment of pesticide impacts, including risk to consumers through dietary intake of residues. Pesticide residues are found on 62% of rice from Pakistan and on 85% of harvested fruits, berries, pulses and leafy vegetables in Western countries. Moreover, residues on ~2–4% of domestic foods in China, New Zealand, the European Union and the USA exceed legal safety limits. Through stringent regulations on pesticide use and enforced compliance with pesticide residue limits, international trade can encourage adoption of low-pesticide cropping strategies and decision support systems that prioritize biodiversity and human health while maintaining yield. Future research should focus on quantifying transboundary pesticide impacts, constraining the environmental fate and transport of pesticides, and increasing environmental monitoring, especially in the Global South. Pesticide use in agriculture helps protect crop yields and support global food security, but environmental contamination and residues on food products pose risks to ecosystems and human health. This Review explores transboundary pesticide impacts of internationally traded foods, finding that fruit and vegetables have the highest embodied impacts.
{"title":"Transboundary impacts of pesticide use in food production","authors":"Fiona H. M. Tang, Kris A. G. Wyckhuys, Zijian Li, Federico Maggi, Vera Silva","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00673-y","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00673-y","url":null,"abstract":"Approximately 3.7 Tg of pesticides are used annually in global crop production to help protect yield, but pesticides pose risks to ecosystem and human health. In this Review, we summarize the pathways causing transboundary environmental and human health impacts of pesticide use in food production, and explore strategies to reduce reliance on pesticides. Once applied to crops, pesticides are transported through surface and groundwater flows, atmospheric dispersion and wildlife migration. Globally, 7.2% of pesticide input leaches below the root zone potentially reaching groundwater, with atmospheric droplets (10–50 µm in size) transported between 250 m and several kilometres from the point of application. International food trade drives pesticide use and, of all food products, fruit and vegetables have the highest embodiment of pesticide impacts, including risk to consumers through dietary intake of residues. Pesticide residues are found on 62% of rice from Pakistan and on 85% of harvested fruits, berries, pulses and leafy vegetables in Western countries. Moreover, residues on ~2–4% of domestic foods in China, New Zealand, the European Union and the USA exceed legal safety limits. Through stringent regulations on pesticide use and enforced compliance with pesticide residue limits, international trade can encourage adoption of low-pesticide cropping strategies and decision support systems that prioritize biodiversity and human health while maintaining yield. Future research should focus on quantifying transboundary pesticide impacts, constraining the environmental fate and transport of pesticides, and increasing environmental monitoring, especially in the Global South. Pesticide use in agriculture helps protect crop yields and support global food security, but environmental contamination and residues on food products pose risks to ecosystems and human health. This Review explores transboundary pesticide impacts of internationally traded foods, finding that fruit and vegetables have the highest embodied impacts.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 6","pages":"383-400"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122812","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-27DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00688-5
Siobhán Johnson
Siobhán Johnson describes the use of a handheld system to extract sea-ice cores.
Siobhán约翰逊描述了使用手持系统提取海冰核。
{"title":"A vertical coring system to sample sea ice","authors":"Siobhán Johnson","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00688-5","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00688-5","url":null,"abstract":"Siobhán Johnson describes the use of a handheld system to extract sea-ice cores.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 7","pages":"440-440"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122793","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-22DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00672-z
Laura J. Moore, Sally D. Hacker, Josh Breithaupt, Sierd de Vries, Thomas Miller, Peter Ruggiero, Julie C. Zinnert
Globally, along sandy coastlines, foredunes support ecosystem services including provision of habitat and protection of communities from waves and storm surge. In this Review, we discuss the interactions between sand transport and vegetation processes (ecomorphodynamics) that give rise to the foredune-building feedback as illuminated by empirical and modelling studies. Foredune shape and alongshore continuity depend primarily on sand supply, vegetation density and growth form. For instance, low-lying, creeping herbaceous species tend to form short embryo dunes, whereas tall, dense grasses that grow vertically tend to form tall, narrow foredunes. Climate and weather events, herbivory and anthropogenic disturbances of varying scale affect the foredune-building feedback. For example, small local scale disturbances, such as herbivory or trampling, cause local vegetation loss and erosion. Management activities, such as beach nourishment, can increase foredune sand supply, leading to foredune rebuilding, although the presence of infrastructure on the back beach can inhibit foredune development. At a regional scale, hurricanes and tropical storms cause substantial dune erosion and overwash, potentially resetting the foredune-building process. Sea-level rise exacerbates the effects of storms, leading to increased erosion, saltwater intrusion and a potential landward shift in foredune location. Future research should prioritize integrated ecomorphodynamic observations and modelling to fill critical knowledge gaps and address the effects of changing climate on the foredune-building process. Coastal dunes are highly dynamic systems. This Review considers the foredune-building feedback between sand transport and vegetation and how their influence on foredune morphology, size and stability is affected by climate change and anthropogenic disturbances.
{"title":"Ecomorphodynamics of coastal foredune evolution","authors":"Laura J. Moore, Sally D. Hacker, Josh Breithaupt, Sierd de Vries, Thomas Miller, Peter Ruggiero, Julie C. Zinnert","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00672-z","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00672-z","url":null,"abstract":"Globally, along sandy coastlines, foredunes support ecosystem services including provision of habitat and protection of communities from waves and storm surge. In this Review, we discuss the interactions between sand transport and vegetation processes (ecomorphodynamics) that give rise to the foredune-building feedback as illuminated by empirical and modelling studies. Foredune shape and alongshore continuity depend primarily on sand supply, vegetation density and growth form. For instance, low-lying, creeping herbaceous species tend to form short embryo dunes, whereas tall, dense grasses that grow vertically tend to form tall, narrow foredunes. Climate and weather events, herbivory and anthropogenic disturbances of varying scale affect the foredune-building feedback. For example, small local scale disturbances, such as herbivory or trampling, cause local vegetation loss and erosion. Management activities, such as beach nourishment, can increase foredune sand supply, leading to foredune rebuilding, although the presence of infrastructure on the back beach can inhibit foredune development. At a regional scale, hurricanes and tropical storms cause substantial dune erosion and overwash, potentially resetting the foredune-building process. Sea-level rise exacerbates the effects of storms, leading to increased erosion, saltwater intrusion and a potential landward shift in foredune location. Future research should prioritize integrated ecomorphodynamic observations and modelling to fill critical knowledge gaps and address the effects of changing climate on the foredune-building process. Coastal dunes are highly dynamic systems. This Review considers the foredune-building feedback between sand transport and vegetation and how their influence on foredune morphology, size and stability is affected by climate change and anthropogenic disturbances.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 6","pages":"417-432"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122697","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-15DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00675-w
Abhirup Dikshit, Clare Davis
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Abhirup Dikshit about their project investigating flash drought and bushfires.
《自然评论：地球与环境》采访了阿比鲁普·迪克希特关于他们调查突发性干旱和森林大火的项目。
{"title":"Finding the link between flash drought and bushfires","authors":"Abhirup Dikshit, Clare Davis","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00675-w","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00675-w","url":null,"abstract":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Abhirup Dikshit about their project investigating flash drought and bushfires.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 5","pages":"322-322"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122691","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-15DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00674-x
Laura Carter, Clare Davis
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Laura Carter about their project investigating emerging contaminants in agricultural systems.
《自然评论：地球与环境》采访了劳拉·卡特关于他们调查农业系统中新出现的污染物的项目。
{"title":"Emerging contaminants in agricultural systems","authors":"Laura Carter, Clare Davis","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00674-x","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00674-x","url":null,"abstract":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Laura Carter about their project investigating emerging contaminants in agricultural systems.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 5","pages":"320-320"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122692","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-15DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00677-8
Biao Zhu, Clare Davis
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Biao Zhu about their project investigating whole-soil carbon dynamics in a future warmer world.
《自然评论：地球与环境》采访了朱彪，介绍了他们研究未来变暖世界全土壤碳动态的项目。
{"title":"Vulnerability of whole-soil carbon in a future warmer world","authors":"Biao Zhu, Clare Davis","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00677-8","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00677-8","url":null,"abstract":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment interviewed Biao Zhu about their project investigating whole-soil carbon dynamics in a future warmer world.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 5","pages":"321-321"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122727","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-05-13DOI: 10.1038/s43017-025-00670-1
Chris J. Ballentine, Rūta Karolytė, Anran Cheng, Barbara Sherwood Lollar, Jon G. Gluyas, Michael C. Daly
Naturally occurring hydrogen accumulations could be an important source of clean hydrogen for hard-to-abate industry use and energy, but societally important reserves have yet to be proven. In this Review, we explore the conditions that enable the development of natural hydrogen resources in the geological subsurface, by examining the processes of hydrogen generation, migration, accumulation and preservation. Natural hydrogen is generated within the continental crust by two key mechanisms, water–rock reactions where Fe2+, dominantly in ultramafic rocks, is oxidized to Fe3+, and by radiolysis of water via radioactive elements U, Th and K found in upper-crustal rocks. These two generation reactions operate on very different timescales, ranging from thousands to millions of years for water–rock reactions in highly fractured rocks, to tens to hundreds of millions of years for water-limited water–rock and radiolysis reactions. Different globally widespread terrane types have the potential for hydrogen accumulations: continental margin ophiolite complexes, alkaline granite terranes, large igneous provinces, and Archaean greenstone belts and tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite granitic batholiths. Exploitation of natural hydrogen would have a low-carbon footprint, but continental systems do not provide a regenerating system on decadal to centennial timescales, and should not be considered a renewable resource. Calculating hydrogen generation by water–rock reactions is subject to more uncertainty than radiolysis reactions, but improving these estimates should be a priority for future research. Natural hydrogen is generated through chemical and radioactive processes in the Earth’s crust, and could be an important future clean chemical feedstock and energy resource. This Review examines the processes of geological hydrogen generation, migration, accumulation and preservation that enable the development of exploitable reserves.
{"title":"Natural hydrogen resource accumulation in the continental crust","authors":"Chris J. Ballentine, Rūta Karolytė, Anran Cheng, Barbara Sherwood Lollar, Jon G. Gluyas, Michael C. Daly","doi":"10.1038/s43017-025-00670-1","DOIUrl":"10.1038/s43017-025-00670-1","url":null,"abstract":"Naturally occurring hydrogen accumulations could be an important source of clean hydrogen for hard-to-abate industry use and energy, but societally important reserves have yet to be proven. In this Review, we explore the conditions that enable the development of natural hydrogen resources in the geological subsurface, by examining the processes of hydrogen generation, migration, accumulation and preservation. Natural hydrogen is generated within the continental crust by two key mechanisms, water–rock reactions where Fe2+, dominantly in ultramafic rocks, is oxidized to Fe3+, and by radiolysis of water via radioactive elements U, Th and K found in upper-crustal rocks. These two generation reactions operate on very different timescales, ranging from thousands to millions of years for water–rock reactions in highly fractured rocks, to tens to hundreds of millions of years for water-limited water–rock and radiolysis reactions. Different globally widespread terrane types have the potential for hydrogen accumulations: continental margin ophiolite complexes, alkaline granite terranes, large igneous provinces, and Archaean greenstone belts and tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite granitic batholiths. Exploitation of natural hydrogen would have a low-carbon footprint, but continental systems do not provide a regenerating system on decadal to centennial timescales, and should not be considered a renewable resource. Calculating hydrogen generation by water–rock reactions is subject to more uncertainty than radiolysis reactions, but improving these estimates should be a priority for future research. Natural hydrogen is generated through chemical and radioactive processes in the Earth’s crust, and could be an important future clean chemical feedstock and energy resource. This Review examines the processes of geological hydrogen generation, migration, accumulation and preservation that enable the development of exploitable reserves.","PeriodicalId":18921,"journal":{"name":"Nature Reviews Earth & Environment","volume":"6 5","pages":"342-356"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145122690","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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