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Collaborative training of deep neural networks for the lithium-ion battery aging prediction with federated learning 基于联邦学习的锂离子电池老化预测深度神经网络协同训练
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100294
Thomas Kröger , Annalena Belnarsch , Philip Bilfinger , Wolfram Ratzke , Markus Lienkamp

Accurate and reliable prediction of the future capacity degradation of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for their application in electric vehicles. Recent publications have highlighted the effectiveness of deep learning, in particular, in generating precise forecasts regarding the aging patterns. However, large quantities of training data covering various aging behaviors are required to train such models effectively. Collecting such a large database centrally is not feasible due to privacy and data communication restrictions of data owners, such as testing facilities or fleet operators. Federated learning provides a solution to this open issue. A framework, which incorporates federated learning into the training of a data-based battery aging model, is presented in this paper. The benefit of federated learning is that even data owners with sensible information can participate in a collaborative model training, since the model training is only conducted locally and all the data remains local and does not have to be disclosed. Thus, more data owners are likely to participate in this collaborative training. This will improve the prediction performance due to the enlarged dataset that can be utilized for the model training. This work shows that the prediction accuracy of the model trained with federated learning is only slightly worse than the prediction results obtained by the ideal case in which all aging data is stored in a central database. A sensitivity analysis is presented to prove the robustness of federated learning even if the datasets between participating data owners are highly imbalanced or exhibit different aging behaviors. Within exemplary scenarios, it is shown that individual data holders can reduce their prediction errors from MAPEmean=7.07% to MAPEmean=0.91% by participating in the proposed federated learning-based framework.

准确可靠地预测锂离子电池未来的容量退化对其在电动汽车中的应用至关重要。最近的出版物强调了深度学习的有效性,特别是在生成关于老龄化模式的精确预测方面。然而,需要大量覆盖各种老化行为的训练数据来有效地训练这些模型。由于数据所有者(如测试设施或车队运营商)的隐私和数据通信限制,集中收集如此大的数据库是不可行的。联合学习为这个悬而未决的问题提供了解决方案。本文提出了一个框架,将联合学习纳入基于数据的电池老化模型的训练中。联合学习的好处是,即使是拥有合理信息的数据所有者也可以参与协作模型训练,因为模型训练只在本地进行,所有数据都保持在本地,不必公开。因此,更多的数据所有者可能会参与这种协作培训。这将由于可用于模型训练的放大数据集而提高预测性能。这项工作表明,使用联合学习训练的模型的预测精度仅略低于将所有老化数据存储在中央数据库中的理想情况下获得的预测结果。提出了一种灵敏度分析来证明联合学习的稳健性,即使参与数据所有者之间的数据集高度不平衡或表现出不同的老化行为。在示例性场景中,表明了通过参与所提出的基于联合学习的框架,个体数据持有者可以将其预测误差从MAPEmean=7.07%降低到MAPEmean=0.91%。
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引用次数: 0
Can retired lithium-ion batteries be a game changer in fast charging stations? 退役的锂离子电池能改变快速充电站的游戏规则吗?
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100297
Liangcai Xu , Shunbo Lei , Dipti Srinivasan , Ziyou Song

As the global popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to grow, the demand for EV batteries has significantly increased. Unfortunately, when the battery state of health (SoH) reaches a certain value, the batteries may no longer meet the driving requirements of EVs, resulting in many retired batteries. Properly disposing of these batteries is a major challenge. In this paper, we will take fast charging stations (FCSs) as an example to evaluate the economic feasibility of reusing retired batteries, which is one of the most environmentally friendly methods of disposal. To make a fair comparison between fresh and retired batteries, a bi-level sizing framework is designed to determine the optimal sizes of fresh and retired batteries, as well as photovoltaic (PV) panels in FCSs, to minimize the total cost. To ensure the high fidelity of results, diverse EV travel patterns are considered to generate the charging power demand. Additionally, a dynamic battery degradation model focused on batteries that have not yet reached their turning point is developed. This model is designed to precisely quantify the gradual reduction in battery capacity. We conducted several representative case studies using real-world data, and the simulation results indicate that FCSs with fresh batteries can achieve 42.2 % cost savings compared to those without energy storage systems, while retired batteries can achieve an additional 5.41 %–11.79 % cost savings under different scenarios. These findings can be generalized that retired batteries are promising in small-scale applications due to the relatively low refurbishment cost, and a new market stream can be potentially generated in this direction.

随着全球电动汽车(EV)的普及,电动汽车电池的需求大幅增加。不幸的是,当电池健康状态(SoH)达到一定值时,电池可能不再满足电动汽车的行驶要求,导致许多电池退役。妥善处理这些电池是一项重大挑战。本文将以快速充电站(FCSs)为例,评估退役电池再利用的经济可行性,这是最环保的处理方式之一。为了对新电池和退役电池进行公平的比较,设计了一个双层尺寸框架来确定fcs中新电池和退役电池以及光伏(PV)面板的最佳尺寸,以最小化总成本。为了保证结果的高保真度,考虑了不同的电动汽车行驶模式来产生充电功率需求。此外,还建立了一个针对尚未达到拐点的电池的动态退化模型。该模型旨在精确量化电池容量的逐渐减少。我们利用真实世界的数据进行了几个有代表性的案例研究,仿真结果表明,在不同的场景下,与不使用储能系统的储能系统相比,使用新电池的储能系统可以节省42.2%的成本,而使用退役电池的储能系统可以额外节省5.41% - 11.79%的成本。这些发现可以概括为,由于相对较低的翻新成本,退役电池在小规模应用中是有前途的,并且可能在这个方向上产生新的市场流。
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引用次数: 0
Toward flexibility of user side in China: Virtual power plant (VPP) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) interaction 中国用户侧的灵活性:虚拟电厂(VPP)和车辆到电网(V2G)的交互
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100291
Yudi Qin , Yiran Rao , Zhoucheng Xu , Xianping Lin , Kegang Cui , Jiuyu Du , Minggao Ouyang

The construction and development of the new power system with new energy sources as the main component will face significant challenges in terms of scarcity of flexible resources. User-side adjustable loads and energy storage, particularly electric vehicles (EVs), will serve as substantial reservoirs of flexibility, providing stability to the new power system. The rapid deployment of renewable energy and the surpassing of expectations in the penetration rate of EVs in China present opportunities for the significant growth of virtual power plants (VPPs) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) interactions. The enormous potential and advantages of V2G as a primary user-side resource are further revealed. Under China's current electricity market policies, the pilot projects of user-side interactions are being analyzed. Furthermore, the prospects for the future development of VPPs and V2G, along with relevant recommendations and perspectives regarding business models, technologies, and policies, are highlighted. The development of VPPs and V2G interactions in China holds immense potential for leveraging adjustable resources, especially EVs and energy storages with lithium-ion batteries, to enhance grid flexibility and stability.

以新能源为主要组成部分的新型电力系统的建设和发展将面临柔性资源稀缺的重大挑战。用户侧可调节负载和储能,特别是电动汽车,将成为灵活性的重要水库,为新电力系统提供稳定性。中国可再生能源的快速部署和电动汽车普及率的超出预期,为虚拟发电厂(vpp)和车对网(V2G)互动的显著增长提供了机会。V2G作为主要用户端资源的巨大潜力和优势进一步显现。在中国现行的电力市场政策下,用户侧交互的试点项目正在进行分析。此外,重点介绍了vpp和V2G的未来发展前景,以及有关商业模式、技术和政策的建议和观点。在中国,vpp和V2G互动的发展具有巨大的潜力,可以利用可调节资源,特别是电动汽车和锂离子电池储能,增强电网的灵活性和稳定性。
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引用次数: 1
Lithium-ion battery utilization in various modes of e-transportation 锂离子电池在各种电子交通方式中的应用
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100274
Benedikt Tepe , Sammy Jablonski , Holger Hesse , Andreas Jossen

The electrification of the transportation sector leads to an increased deployment of lithium-ion batteries in vehicles. Today, traction batteries are installed, for example, in electric cars, electric buses, and electric boats. These use-cases place different demands on the battery. In this work, simulated data from 60 electric cars and field data from 82 electric buses and six electric boats from Germany are used to quantify a set of stress factors relevant to battery operation and life expectancy depending on the mode of transportation. For this purpose, the open-source tool SimSES designed initially to simulate battery operation in stationary applications is extended toward analyzing mobile applications. It now allows users to simulate electric vehicles while driving and charging. The analyses of the three means of transportation show that electric buses, for example, consume between 1 and 1.5 kWh/km and that consumption is lowest at ambient temperatures around 20 °C. Electric buses are confronted with 0.4–1 equivalent full cycle per day, whereas the analyzed set of car batteries experience less than 0.18 and electric boats between 0.026 and 0.3 equivalent full cycles per day. Other parameters analyzed include mean state-of-charges, mean charging rates, and mean trip cycle depths. Beyond these evaluations, the battery parameters of the transportation means are compared with those of three stationary applications. We reveal that stationary storage systems in home storage and balancing power applications generate similar numbers of equivalent full cycles as electric buses, which indicates that similar batteries could be used in these applications. Furthermore, we simulate the influence of different charging strategies and show their severe impact on battery degradation stress factors in e-transportation. To facilitate widespread and diverse usage, all profile and analysis data relevant to this work is provided as open data as part of this work.

交通运输部门的电气化导致锂离子电池在车辆中的部署增加。今天,牵引电池被安装在电动汽车、电动公共汽车和电动船上。这些用例对电池提出了不同的要求。在这项工作中,使用来自德国的60辆电动汽车的模拟数据和来自82辆电动公交车和6艘电动船的现场数据来量化一组与电池运行和预期寿命相关的压力因素,具体取决于运输方式。为此,最初设计用于模拟固定应用中电池操作的开源工具SimSES扩展到分析移动应用。它现在允许用户在驾驶和充电时模拟电动汽车。例如,对三种交通工具的分析表明,电动公交车的耗电量在1至1.5千瓦时/公里之间,并且在环境温度约为20°C时耗电量最低。电动公交车每天面临0.4-1等效全循环,而所分析的一组汽车电池每天经历不到0.18个等效全循环,电动船每天经历0.026到0.3个等效全循环。分析的其他参数包括平均充电状态、平均充电速率和平均行程循环深度。除了这些评估之外,还将运输工具的电池参数与三种固定应用的电池参数进行了比较。我们发现,固定存储系统在家庭存储和平衡电源应用中产生的等效全周期数量与电动公交车相似,这表明类似的电池可以用于这些应用。此外,我们还模拟了不同充电策略对电动交通电池退化应力因子的影响,并展示了它们对电动交通电池退化应力因子的严重影响。为了促进广泛和多样化的使用,所有与本工作相关的概要和分析数据都作为开放数据提供,作为本工作的一部分。
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引用次数: 1
Performance loss due to gas coverage on catalyst surface in polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis cell 聚合物电解质膜电解电池中催化剂表面气体覆盖造成的性能损失
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100263
Daniela Fernanda Ruiz Diaz, Yun Wang

In this study, we carry out a fundamental and modeling study to investigate, for the first time, the gas coverage at the catalyst surface and its impacts on performance loss in polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis cells (PEMECs). Oxygen, produced in the anode catalyst layer (CL) through the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), is removed via the pore network of the anode CL and porous transport layer (PTL) to the flow field. Oxygen gas bubbles can cover the catalyst surface and reduce the area for catalyst OER activity and hence cell performance. To investigate the oxygen bubbles’ impact, we consider various degrees of gas coverage and temperatures (25 °C, 80 °C, and 95 °C) in the range of current density from 0 to 7 A/cm2. We also, for the first time, elucidate the impacts of CL’s material properties on gas coverage morphology in the nano/micropores of CLs. Analytical solutions are derived for the gas fraction and gas composition at different temperatures and pressures. It was found that the gas fraction can be as high as 85% with water vapor contributing to 71% of the total gas coverage when operating at 95 °C and 1 atm. The modeling results indicate the gas coverage can contribute 57% of the total overpotential at 95 °C, 7 A/cm2, and a coverage coefficient of 7. The work contributes to a fundamental understanding of the impacts of two-phase phenomena on PEMEC performance and is valuable for catalyst layer design and optimization.

在这项研究中,我们进行了基础和建模研究,首次调查了催化剂表面的气体覆盖及其对聚合物电解质膜电解电池(PEMECs)性能损失的影响。在阳极催化剂层(CL)中通过析氧反应(OER)产生的氧,通过阳极催化剂层(CL)的孔隙网络和多孔输运层(PTL)被转移到流场。氧气气泡可以覆盖催化剂表面,减少催化剂OER活性的面积,从而降低电池性能。为了研究氧气气泡的影响,我们考虑了不同程度的气体覆盖和温度(25°C, 80°C和95°C),电流密度从0到7 A/cm2。我们还首次阐明了CL的材料性质对CL纳米/微孔中气体覆盖形貌的影响。在不同温度和压力下,导出了气体馏分和气体成分的解析解。结果表明,在95°C和1atm的温度下,水蒸气占总气体覆盖率的71%,气体分数可高达85%。模拟结果表明,在95℃,7 A/cm2,覆盖系数为7时,天然气覆盖占总过电位的57%。这项工作有助于从根本上理解两相现象对PEMEC性能的影响,对催化剂层的设计和优化具有重要价值。
{"title":"Performance loss due to gas coverage on catalyst surface in polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis cell","authors":"Daniela Fernanda Ruiz Diaz,&nbsp;Yun Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2023.100263","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2023.100263","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>In this study, we carry out a fundamental and modeling study to investigate, for the first time, the gas coverage at the catalyst surface<span> and its impacts on performance loss in polymer electrolyte membrane<span><span> electrolysis cells (PEMECs). Oxygen, produced in the anode </span>catalyst layer (CL) through the </span></span></span>oxygen evolution reaction (OER), is removed via the pore network of the anode CL and porous transport layer (PTL) to the flow field. Oxygen gas bubbles can cover the catalyst surface and reduce the area for catalyst OER activity and hence cell performance. To investigate the oxygen bubbles’ impact, we consider various degrees of gas coverage and temperatures (25 °C, 80 °C, and 95 °C) in the range of current density from 0 to 7 A/cm</span><sup>2</sup><span>. We also, for the first time, elucidate the impacts of CL’s material properties on gas coverage morphology in the nano/micropores of CLs. Analytical solutions are derived for the gas fraction and gas composition at different temperatures and pressures. It was found that the gas fraction can be as high as 85% with water vapor contributing to 71% of the total gas coverage when operating at 95 °C and 1 atm. The modeling results indicate the gas coverage can contribute 57% of the total overpotential at 95 °C, 7 A/cm</span><sup>2</sup>, and a coverage coefficient of 7. The work contributes to a fundamental understanding of the impacts of two-phase phenomena on PEMEC performance and is valuable for catalyst layer design and optimization.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"18 ","pages":"Article 100263"},"PeriodicalIF":11.9,"publicationDate":"2023-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47562757","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Methods for increasing the potential of integration of EV chargers into the DC catenary of electric transport grids: A trolleygrid case study 提高电动汽车充电器集成到电网直流接触网的潜力的方法:一个有轨电车电网的案例研究
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100271
Koen van der Horst, Ibrahim Diab, Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli, Pavol Bauer

The traction substations of urban electric transport grids are oversized and underutilized in terms of their capacity. While their over-sizing is an unfortunate waste, their under-utilization creates the major hurdle for the integration of renewables into these grids due to the lack of a base load. Therefore, integrating smart grid loads such as EV chargers is not only an opportunity but a necessity for the sustainable transport grid of the future.

This paper examines six methods for increasing the potential of EV chargers in three case studies of a trolleygrid, namely a higher substation no-load voltage, a higher substation power capacity, a smart charging method, adding a third overheard parallel line, adding a bilateral connection, and installing a multi-port converter between two substations. From the case studies, the most promising and cost-effective method seems to be introducing a bilateral connection, bringing a charging capacity for up to 175 electric cars per day. Meanwhile, other costly and complex methods, such as smart charging with grid state sensors and communication, can offer charging room for over 200 electric cars per day. Furthermore, using solar PV systems to power the grid showed a more than doubling of the directly utilized energy by installing a 150kW charger, from 19% to 41%. This reduces the power mismatch between the trolleygrid and the PV system from 81% to 59% and thereby reduces the severe economic need for storage, AC grid power exchange, or PV power curtailment while allowing a high penetration of renewables.

城市电网牵引变电站规模过大,容量利用率不高。虽然它们的超大规模是一种不幸的浪费,但由于缺乏基本负荷,它们的利用率不足成为将可再生能源整合到这些电网中的主要障碍。因此,整合智能电网负载(如电动汽车充电器)不仅是一个机会,而且是未来可持续交通电网的必要条件。本文通过对有轨电车电网的三个案例研究,探讨了提高电动汽车充电器潜力的六种方法,即提高变电站空载电压、提高变电站电力容量、智能充电方法、增加第三偷听平行线路、增加双边连接以及在两个变电站之间安装多端口转换器。从案例研究来看,最具前景和成本效益的方法似乎是引入双边连接,每天为175辆电动汽车提供充电容量。与此同时,其他昂贵而复杂的方法,如带有电网状态传感器和通信的智能充电,每天可以为200多辆电动汽车提供充电空间。此外,使用太阳能光伏系统为电网供电显示,通过安装一个150kW的充电器,直接利用的能源从19%增加到41%,增加了一倍多。这将有轨电车电网和光伏系统之间的功率不匹配从81%减少到59%,从而减少了对存储、交流电网电力交换或光伏电力削减的严重经济需求,同时允许可再生能源的高渗透。
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引用次数: 1
Perspectives and challenges for future lithium-ion battery control and management 未来锂离子电池控制与管理的展望与挑战
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100260
Yujie Wang, Xingchen Zhang, Kaiquan Li, Guanghui Zhao, Zonghai Chen

The safety issue of the lithium-ion batteries is the key to their application and development. The management of lithium-ion batteries has been a hot topic of research for many years, which involves a number of scientific and engineering issues. This paper summarized the current research advances in lithium-ion battery management systems, covering battery modeling, state estimation, health prognosis, charging strategy, fault diagnosis, and thermal management methods, and provides the future trends of each aspect, in hopes to give inspiration and suggestion for future lithium-ion battery control and management.

锂离子电池的安全问题是其应用和发展的关键。锂离子电池的管理是多年来研究的热点问题,涉及许多科学和工程问题。本文综述了当前锂离子电池管理系统的研究进展,包括电池建模、状态估计、健康预测、充电策略、故障诊断和热管理方法,并给出了各个方面的未来发展趋势,希望对未来锂离子电池的控制和管理提供启发和建议。
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引用次数: 16
Data selection framework for battery state of health related parameter estimation under system uncertainties 系统不确定性下电池健康状态相关参数估计的数据选择框架
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100283
Jackson Fogelquist, Xinfan Lin

Data selection is a practical technique for improving parameter estimation accuracy through the strategic selection of information-rich data for use in the estimation algorithm. Traditional selection criteria have been either heuristic or sensitivity-based, without consideration of uncertainties in measurement, model, or parameter. In this paper, we propose an uncertainty-aware data selection framework that selects data segments based on the potential of the ingrained data structures to mitigate the influence of system uncertainties on the estimation result. The framework comprises two components: the data quality rating and data selection algorithm. The data quality rating is a metric for evaluating the uncertainty-propagating data structures of a data segment, and the data selection algorithm automatically integrates the data selection into the estimation procedure. Furthermore, a novel adaptive approximation of model/measurement uncertainty is derived and implemented in the data quality rating formula to enhance performance in the presence of time-varying sensor bias/noise and unmodeled system dynamics. The framework is validated through an advanced battery management system application, where two lithium-ion battery health-related electrochemical parameters are separately estimated under random drive-cycle input data to emulate battery state of health monitoring for an electric vehicle. We show that the drive-cycle data, which are frequently used for battery state of health estimation as the only available data during battery operation, may not provide accurate estimation results due to the existence of large portions of low-quality data (low sensitivity and high uncertainty). By extracting the high-quality data segments, the data selection framework reduced experimental estimation errors by one order of magnitude when compared with the conventional approach of estimating without data selection.

数据选择是一种提高参数估计精度的实用技术,通过策略性地选择信息丰富的数据用于估计算法。传统的选择标准要么是启发式的,要么是基于敏感性的,而没有考虑测量、模型或参数中的不确定性。在本文中,我们提出了一个不确定性感知的数据选择框架,该框架基于根深蒂固的数据结构的潜力来选择数据段,以减轻系统不确定性对估计结果的影响。该框架包括两个部分:数据质量评级和数据选择算法。数据质量评级是评估数据段的不确定性传播数据结构的度量,数据选择算法将数据选择自动集成到估计过程中。此外,在数据质量评定公式中推导并实现了一种新的自适应模型/测量不确定性近似,以提高存在时变传感器偏差/噪声和未建模系统动力学时的性能。该框架通过先进的电池管理系统应用程序进行验证,在随机驱动循环输入数据下,分别估计两个锂离子电池健康相关的电化学参数,以模拟电动汽车的电池健康状态监测。我们表明,由于存在大量低质量数据(低灵敏度和高不确定性),驱动循环数据可能无法提供准确的估计结果,而驱动循环数据是电池运行过程中经常用于电池健康状态估计的唯一可用数据。通过提取高质量的数据片段,与传统的无数据选择估计方法相比,该数据选择框架将实验估计误差降低了一个数量级。
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引用次数: 0
Local demand management of charging stations using vehicle-to-vehicle service: A welfare maximization-based soft actor-critic model 基于车对车服务的充电站本地需求管理:基于福利最大化的软行为者批评模型
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100280
Akhtar Hussain , Van-Hai Bui , Petr Musilek

Transportation electrification has the potential to reduce carbon emissions from the transport sector. However, the increased penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) can potentially overload the distribution systems. This becomes prominent in locations with multiple EV chargers and charging stations with many EVs. Therefore, this study proposes a welfare maximization-based soft actor critic (SAC) model to mitigate transformer overload in distribution systems due to the high penetration of EVs. The demand of each charging station is managed locally to avoid network overload during peak load hours in two steps. First, a welfare maximization-based optimization model is developed to maximize the welfare of electric vehicle owners by performing vehicle-to-vehicle(V2V) service. In this step, the sensitivity of EV owners to different parameters (energy level, battery degradation, and incentives provided by fleet operators) is considered. Then, a deep reinforcement learning-based method (soft-actor critic) is trained by incorporating the welfare value (obtained from the welfare maximization model) in the reward function. The total power demand (at the transformer level) and transformer capacity are also included in the reward function. The agent (fleet operator) learns the optimal pricing strategy for local demand management of EVs by interacting with the environment. Each electric vehicle responds to the action (price) by deciding the amount of power they are willing to charge/discharge (V2V) during that interval. Training is performed offline, and the trained model can be used for real-time demand management of different types of charging stations. The simulation results have shown that the proposed method can successfully manage the demand of different charging stations, via V2V, without violating the transformer capacity limits.

交通电气化有可能减少交通部门的碳排放。然而,电动汽车(ev)的日益普及可能会使配电系统过载。这在拥有多个电动汽车充电器和拥有许多电动汽车的充电站的地方变得突出。因此,本研究提出了一个基于福利最大化的软行为者评价(SAC)模型,以减轻配电系统中由于电动汽车的高渗透率而导致的变压器过载。分两步对各充电站的需求进行局部管理,避免高峰负荷时段网络过载。首先,建立了基于福利最大化的优化模型,通过车对车(V2V)服务实现电动汽车车主福利最大化。在这一步中,考虑了电动汽车车主对不同参数(能量水平、电池退化和车队运营商提供的激励)的敏感性。然后,通过将福利值(从福利最大化模型中获得)纳入奖励函数,训练基于深度强化学习的方法(软行为者批评家)。总电力需求(在变压器层面)和变压器容量也包含在奖励函数中。代理(车队运营商)通过与环境的交互学习电动汽车本地需求管理的最优定价策略。每辆电动汽车通过决定在这段时间内他们愿意充电/放电的电量(V2V)来响应动作(价格)。离线训练,训练后的模型可用于不同类型充电站的实时需求管理。仿真结果表明,该方法可以在不违反变压器容量限制的情况下,通过V2V对不同充电站的需求进行有效管理。
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引用次数: 1
Molecular regulated polymer electrolytes for solid-state lithium metal batteries: Mechanisms and future prospects 用于固态锂金属电池的分子调控聚合物电解质:机理和前景
IF 11.9 1区 工程技术 Q1 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2023-10-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100264
Mengnan Shen, Zhiyan Wang, Dongming Cheng, Hang Cheng, Henghui Xu, Yunhui Huang

Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) have been widely adopted in solid-state lithium metal batteries (SSLMBs) recently due to their excellent flexibility, superior processability and outstanding safety. However, balancing excellent ionic conductivity and mechanical robustness of SPEs is still a bottleneck. Currently, most researches focus on the incorporation of various fillers into polymer matrix to overcome the mentioned obstacle. Nevertheless, the large specific surface area of fillers makes them easy to agglomerate, resulting in uneven dispersion in SPEs, and this would interrupt the continuity of lithium ion migration and cause unstable filler/polymer interfaces. Therefore, direct regulation of polymer electrolytes at molecular level instead of incorporating fillers will effectively avoid the above obstacle while obtaining excellent performance. In this review, three kinds of mechanisms of electrolyte regulation at the molecular level are presented, including designing polymer matrix, adding soluble additives, and building molecular interactions. Through molecularly regulating the polymer matrix, constructing three-dimensional (3D) networks, grafting of special functional groups, and coordination interactions in SPEs, the creation of second phases and unstable filler/polymer interfaces are all avoided. It is hoped that this review can inspire an in-depth understanding on direct regulation of SPEs at the molecular level, further improving ionic conductivity and mechanical robustness of SPEs.

固体聚合物电解质(spe)由于其优异的柔性、可加工性和优异的安全性,近年来在固态锂金属电池(sslmb)中得到了广泛的应用。然而,平衡优异的离子电导率和机械稳健性仍然是spe的瓶颈。目前,大多数研究都集中于在聚合物基体中掺入各种填料来克服上述障碍。然而,填料的比表面积大,容易团聚,导致在spe中分散不均匀,这将中断锂离子迁移的连续性,导致填料/聚合物界面不稳定。因此,在分子水平上直接调节聚合物电解质,而不是加入填料,可以有效地避免上述障碍,同时获得优异的性能。本文综述了电解质在分子水平上的三种调节机制,包括设计聚合物基质、添加可溶性添加剂和建立分子相互作用。通过分子调控聚合物基体,构建三维网络,接枝特殊官能团,以及spe中的配位相互作用,避免了第二相的产生和不稳定的填料/聚合物界面。希望本综述能够启发人们在分子水平上对spe的直接调控进行深入的认识,进一步提高spe的离子电导率和机械稳健性。
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Etransportation
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